Subject Matter Areas Research Articles

A practical approach to the reformed IPC

In a global collaborative effort, the Version 8 International Patent Classification Codes (IPC-8) have been applied to patent documents published prior to 2006 (backfile). This unprecedented effort employed multiple techniques, including use of earlier IPC versions, use of ECLA codes, and propagation of codes from one document to another within Inpadoc patent families. The result is that most records bear a relatively high number of codes, and family members from different authorities are coded relatively uniformly, at least at present. It is also notable that patent documents are not easily differentiated based on selective use of inventive codes because the vast majority of codes have been designated as inventive even where they cover subject matter that would be likely to figure as additional information in a substantial number of cases. Creating high precision search strategies relying on codes may be helped by requiring 2 or more codes to be present on individual documents or families. Sample searches presented are exemplary, and search strategies must be tested individually for optimizing searching in each subject matter area. Whether the reclassification effects and the propensity to make most codes “inventive” makes the IPC more akin to an indexing system is a question only time will answer.

Editorial

Ecology is far and away the most cited journal in the ecological sciences. Our articles were cited more than 38,000 times, about 13,500 more than the next most-cited journal in the ISI Journal Citation Reports of 116 ecology journals for 2007. The cited half life of more than 10 years is as long as any journal in our subject matter area (indicating that our publications stand the test of time), and our impact factor of 4.8 is fourth among journals in ecology publishing primary research articles. Ecology retains the confidence of readers and authors alike as the premier journal in the ecological sciences. The preliminary numbers for 2008 indicate that 1,564 manuscripts were submitted to Ecology/Ecological Monographs during the past year (an increase of more than 7.5% over 2007), further evidence that the scientific community regards us as the premier venue for publishing the very best work in ecology. We thank our volunteer subject-matter editors and reviewers for the dedication in reviewing this large number of submissions in their customary timely and conscientious way. The acceptance rate for Ecology is now slightly less than 25%. Our rigorous peer review does not interfere with rapid publication. Ecology benefits from the talented, conscientious, and efficient professional staff in Ithaca. Owing to quick processing, the large majority of Reports and most Articles appeared in print within one year of submission in 2008. Some authors who responded quickly to the editor's instructions for revision had Reports appearing in print within six months of submission. About three-quarters of initial editorial decisions were made within two months, and those that took longer were mostly a result of editorial judgments made in favor of authors. Our journals continue to provide authors with reviews that are among the most detailed of any journal. While the number of pages published in Ecology (nearly 3,600) has not changed in the past few years, the number of articles published and the breadth of subject matter coverage have increased owing to our policy of emphasizing shorter publications. Our rapid publication is part and parcel of a push for concision, which is being met by improved writing and judicious use of Ecological Archives on the part of authors with careful guidance from our editors and reviewers. More than half of the papers published in Ecology during 2008 had associated materials posted in Ecological Archives. All Reports are now Open Access, which means that no subscription or institutional access is required to view the full text online. This feature greatly increases the exposure and citation of such articles. Furthermore, there is no charge for color figures to authors of Reports. These polices began with the January 2008 issue and are part of the efforts led by the Special Publications Subcommittee of the ESA (chaired by Jayne Belnap) to maintain our journals at the forefront of scientific publication. Ecology's Book Reviews continue to be among the best found in science journals owing to the dedication of Janet Lanza, who serves as Editor. Her breadth and depth of selection provides about 40 reviews each year from the huge numbers of books in ecology. Her services to the Book Review section of the journal are deeply appreciated by our readership. Astute readers will notice a new style in this issue for the titles of published articles. This was not a capricious change. While our style of capitalizing the entire title served us well for 90 years, it was not well suited to the Internet Age. Our new style will make our online publications compatible with citation-management tools so that our readers can now download citations in a format that is better suited for creating Lit. Cited entries in their own papers. We also hope our readers have noticed the enhanced appearance and features that accompanied our move to a new online hosting platform in September 2008. We do not intend to rest on our laurels. During the coming year, we intend to add a feature whereby authors may opt to make accepted manuscripts available as “preprints” (complete with doi's) within a week of acceptance. Finally, we are extremely pleased to announce that Aaron Ellison has agreed to become the new Editor-in-Chief of Ecological Monographs. While we will continue to publish in Ecological Monographs the longer papers submitted to Ecology documenting complex, original observational, experimental, or theoretical studies that by their very integrated nature defy dissolution into shorter publications, we look forward to Aaron's innovations for giving Ecological Monographs an identity of its own.

Memo to the Faculty from a Clinic Director Candidate: What Subject Matter Areas Your Clinic Should Cover and Why

Written in the form of a short memo to the faculty, this essay identifies criteria to consider in deciding on what subject matter to add to a clinical program: theoretical considerations, law school mission, overall program coverage, and practical considerations and discusses them in the context of a juvenile offender clinic.

Report of the Committee on Economic Statistics

The current members of the Committee on Economic Statistics are Katharine Abraham, University of Maryland (chair); Robert Feenstra, University of California, Davis; Dennis Fixler, Bureau of Economic Analysis; Barbara Fraumeni, University of Southern Maine; David Johnson, Census Bureau; Dale Jorgenson, Harvard University; Charles Schultze, Brookings Institution; Matthew Shapiro, University of Michigan; and Jack Triplett, Brookings Institution. The Committee met by phone four times during 2007, in January, March, May, and October. In January 2007, the Executive Committee gave the Committee on Economic Statistics standing authority to organize up to three sessions each year for inclusion in the program of the annual meeting of the Association. The Committee has organized three sessions for the January 2008 meeting, one titled “Innovation, Intangibles, and R&D,” a second titled “Reconciliation of Seemingly Inconsistent Data Series,” and the third titled “The Output of Banking and Finance.” Each includes a mix of academic and statistical agency participants. Topics being considered for sessions at the January 2009 meeting are health accounting, matching survey data to administrative records in the production of statistical information, and the development of consistent industry production accounts. The committee wishes to cast its net widely to identify papers suitable for inclusion in the sessions it organizes and, for January 2010 and beyond, plans to develop a process for soliciting proposals for papers in topic areas of potential interest. The Committee also has undertaken the task of commissioning reviews of needs for data in particular subject matter areas. One such report on needs for data in public economics has been completed by a group chaired by Joel Slemrod. Report of the Committee on Economic Statistics

Applying Psychological Theories to Educational Practice

Two approaches to the application of psychological theories to education might be referred to as domain-general and domain-specific. The domain-general approach seeks a general theory of cognitive and other skills that apply across subject-matter areas. The domain-specific approach seeks to apply specific theories within given domains, such as reading or mathematics. The latter approach is more widely used. But it fails to provide a unified model of learning and instruction. One of the greatest challenges facing modern research in learning and instruction is devising and then empirically testing domain-general theories. This article describes efforts to devise and test one such model, the theory of successful intelligence.

Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors

Intelligent tutoring systems are highly interactive learning environments that have been shown to improve upon typical classroom instruction. Cognitive Tutors are a type of intelligent tutor based on cognitive psychology theory of problem solving and learning. Cognitive Tutors provide a rich problem-solving environment with tutorial guidance in the form of step-by-step feedback, specific messages in response to common errors, and on-demand instructional hints. They also select problems based on individual student performance. The learning benefits of these forms of interactivity are supported, to varying extents, by a growing number of results from experimental studies. As Cognitive Tutors have matured and are being applied in new subject-matter areas, they have been used as a research platform and, particularly, to explore interactive methods to support metacognition. We review experiments with Cognitive Tutors that have compared different forms of interactivity and we reinterpret their results as partial answers to the general question: How should learning environments balance information or assistance giving and withholding to achieve optimal student learning? How best to achieve this balance remains a fundamental open problem in instructional science. We call this problem the “assistance dilemma” and emphasize the need for further science to yield specific conditions and parameters that indicate when and to what extent to use information giving versus information withholding forms of interaction.

Investigating the Validity of Math Word Problems for English Language Learners with DIF

When testing English language learners (ELLs) in subject matter areas, construct irrelevant variance could result from English, the language in which the test is presented. Differential item functioning (DIF) techniques have been used to determine if items are operating differently for population subgroups and might therefore be appropriate for such an investigation. In the study presented here, ELL and non-ELL 8th-grade students' scores on National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) math word problems were compared. After the non-ELLs were found to outperform the ELLs, two independent techniques for detecting DIF—an item response theory approach and the Mantel-Haenszel approach—were employed to determine if a plausible explanation for the score difference could be attributed to DIF against ELLs. The results showed that only 1 of 10 original NAEP items and none of 10 linguistically simplified items were found to exhibit DIF against ELLs, suggesting that the score difference between the groups could not be attributed to DIF against ELLs.

The Effect of Groupwork on Ethical Decision-Making of Accountancy Students

Recent accounting scandals involving the collapse of large corporate firms have brought into question the adequacy of ethics education within accounting programs. This paper investigates the ethical decisions of accountancy students and in particular analyses the effect of group (as opposed to individual) decision-making on ethical decisions. Final year accountancy students (sample size of 165) were randomly allocated into two experimental conditions. The participants were then presented with five (5) ethical vignettes. One experimental condition involved completing the ethical decisions as individuals (60). The other involved completing the ethical decision-making as a group of 3–4 participants (34). A consistent pattern of behaviour was observed in the analysis of individual versus group responses. Individuals displayed stronger tendencies than groups to take the extreme actions of acting either unethically or ethically (whistleblowing), whereas groups displayed stronger tendencies to take the safer (neutral) options. It was concluded that groups reached consensus decisions, in an ethical context, probably as a result of peer pressure. The significant implication of this finding is in relation to the emphasis accounting programs place on group work. Group work may enhance students’ abilities to work as a team. However, as revealed in this study’s results, group work may not be an effective means of producing the optimal decision in all subject matter areas, especially complex areas such as ethical decision-making.

A structural equation model analyzing the relationship of student achievement motivations and personality factors in a range of academic subject-matter areas

The question of subject-specificity of achievement motivations is important, both for educational psychology, as well as for educational policy. This study contributes to the investigation of the heterogeneity in achievement motivations in the context of the expectancy-value model. Whereas existing research deals with middle and high school students and their motivations for a range of broad domains, this article focuses on university students ( n = 264) and subject domains that are more congruent. We adopt an affect-extended version of the expectancy-value model. Using structural equation methods, we are able to decompose achievement motivations in generic and subject-specific components.

Evaluation of Learning Outcomes in Web-Based Continuing Medical Education

There has been significant growth in use of Web-based continuing medical education (CME) by physicians. A number of evaluation and metareview studies have examined the effectiveness of Web-based CME to varying degrees. One of the main limitations of this literature has been the lack of systematic evaluation across different clinical subject matter areas using standardized Web-based CME learning formats. One group of pretest-postest designs were used to evaluate knowledge and self-reported confidence change across multiple Web-based courses using a standardized instructional format but comprising distinct clinical subject matter. Participants also completed a participant satisfaction survey and a self-reported retrospective skill/ability change survey. The majority of courses evaluated demonstrated significant pre to post knowledge and confidence effect size change, as well as significant self-reported retrospective practice change. A Web-based CME instructional format comprising multimedia-enhanced learning tutorials supplemented by asynchronous computer-mediated conferencing for case-based discussions was found to be effective in enhancing knowledge, confidence, and self-reported practice change outcomes across a variety of clinical subject matter areas.

The eighth edition of the IPC

IPC8 incorporates both the usual technical revisions to improve the searching in certain subject matter areas and also the major reforms which have been proceeding in parallel for this edition. This article introduces the revised and reformed IPC and provides some statistical data, as well as listing new and substantially revised subclasses. It also covers the form of the paper and electronic forms of IPC8, information on supporting documents such as the Catchwords Indexes and the IPC Guide, and future revision and reform work.

Promoting Critical Thinking in Product Development: Connections between Textile Science and Consumers' Aesthetic Value

Educators and researchers alike have written extensively about the importance of integrating critical thinking experiences across the undergraduate curriculum. In the present paper we discuss critical thinking, explain the importance of critical thinking for apparel professionals involved in product development, and provide integrative structures and applications to help students think critically about aesthetics and textiles subject matter, both of which are central to the product development process. Specifically, we propose a model and adopt a taxonomy to help students understand (a) the important role played by consumer value in professional decisions, and (b) the range of benefits culminating in the value of a product, respectively. To better prepare students for a total customer integration approach to product development, we also propose connections between subject matter areas of textile science and aesthetics and provide example exercises where students integrate textile science and aesthetics subject matter. Graduates of textiles and clothing programs need to understand a total customer integration approach that entails providing the specific benefits or value in a product desired by the customer.

Research on Vocabulary Instruction in the Content Areas: Implications for Struggling Readers

ABSTRACT This article provides an overview of current knowledge about vocabulary teaching and learning—understandings that influence learning across different disciplines. Research on the teaching and learning of vocabulary in particular subject matter areas, including mathematics, social studies, and science, is discussed. Based upon the instructional implications evident in this body of work, this article also offers suggestions for providing effective vocabulary instruction for students reading below grade level.

Effects of types of elaboration on children's memories of a story: interaction with academic performance.

Two experiments compared the effectiveness of three types of elaboration on incidental and intentional memory for a story: self-generated, self-choice, and experimenter-provided elaboration. In Exp. 1, using the incidental memory paradigm, second graders listened to a fantastic story and then, in the self-generated condition, answered a "why" question about a particular topic in the story. In the self-choice condition, they chose one of the alternative answers to the question and in the experimenter-provided condition, judged the appropriateness of each of two provided answers. This was followed by free-recall and cued-recall tests. Subjects were categorized into two groups, good and poor academic achievers in terms of academic scores in four subject matter areas. For good academic achievers, self-choice elaboration led to a better cued recall than the other two elaboration types. The cued-recall performance of poor achievers was not different with the three conditions. In Exp. 2, using the intentional memory paradigm, the subjects intended to learn a different story and then performed the same procedure as Exp. 1. For poor achievers, self-choice elaboration led to a worse free recall than the other elaboration types, but the free recall of good achievers was not significantly different for the three types of elaboration. The results were interpreted as showing that the effects of self-choice elaboration on incidental and intentional memory were correlated with subjects' academic performance.

Constructivist Pedagogy

This article constitutes a critique from the inside of constructivist pedagogy. It begins with a short history of constructivist pedagogy and its relationship to constructivist learning theory. It then addresses four issues in the ways in which constructivist pedagogy are being approached in research and practice. The first issue recommends more of a research focus on student learning in classrooms that engage in constructivist pedagogy. The second leads to the suggestion of theory development that provides an understanding and descriptions of more and less effective constructivist teaching. The third centers on the necessarily deep subject matter knowledge required of teachers who adopt constructivist pedagogy; and the difficulty this requirement imposes on elementary teachers who must deal with many subject matter areas. And the fourth issue raises the possibility that the vision of constructivist pedagogy, as presently recommended, if not mandated, locally and nationally, is strongly ideological and may impose, inappropriately, a dominant view of pedagogy on those who wish to operate differently.

Constructivist Pedagogy

This article constitutes a critique from the inside of constructivist pedagogy. It begins with a short history of constructivist pedagogy and its relationship to constructivist learning theory. It then addresses four issues in the ways in which constructivist pedagogy are being approached in research and practice. The first issue recommends more of a research focus on student learning in classrooms that engage in constructivist pedagogy. The second leads to the suggestion of theory development that provides an understanding and descriptions of more and less effective constructivist teaching. The third centers on the necessarily deep subject matter knowledge required of teachers who adopt constructivist pedagogy; and the difficulty this requirement imposes on elementary teachers who must deal with many subject matter areas. And the fourth issue raises the possibility that the vision of constructivist pedagogy, as presently recommended, if not mandated, locally and nationally, is strongly ideological and may impose, inappropriately, a dominant view of pedagogy on those who wish to operate differently.

Obituary: Michael John Mackey Erritt, 1931-2002

John Erritt spent his early years in Dar es Salaam where his father worked as an engineer in the colonial service. He was educated at St Andrew's College in Dublin during World War II before rejoining his parents in East Africa and completing his secondary education at the Prince of Wales School in Nairobi. The family subsequently returned to Britain where John next attended Queen's University Belfast, graduating in 1953. He stayed in Belfast, working as a research officer for the Science and Industry Committee under Charles Carter until joining the Central Statistical Office in London in 1955. There he began work with Leonard Nicholson on the first uses of the Family Expenditure Survey to provide analyses of the effects of public finance (taxes and benefits, both direct and indirect) on the redistribution of income. These analyses were to enable policy makers to take decisions about taxes and public expenditure with some knowledge of their incidence on different income groups, and the basic methodology is still in use today for that purpose. One important insight revealed by the analyses, which was not perhaps generally understood at that time, was that the indirect benefits received by lower income groups, through public expendit- ure on services such as education and health care, were more significant in reducing income inequalities than the effects of direct taxes on higher income groups. The results of the work were first presented at the 1961 meeting of the International Association for Research in Income and Wealth (Income and Wealth series X, 1964) and published in Economic Trends for November 1962 (anonymously, as at that time it was generally not the practice to attribute official articles to named authors). One notable feature of the early work on redistribution of income analyses was the extensive use of the computing facilities at the National Physical Laboratory. This was largely the work of Philip Redfern, Alan Croxford and around a million punched cards which were processed to produce the tax or benefit content of each item for each type of household. This may have been the first serious use of computers for analysis by official statisticians. By the early 1960s John had moved on to the Board of Trade, which was followed by a spell at the Treasury, a further period at the Board of Trade and then promotion to Chief Statistician at the Inland Revenue in 1968 under Toby Paine. Senior posts at the Department of Industry and Trade, Ministry of Defence (where he was Director of Statistics from 1981 to 1985) and Central Statistical Office followed. He retired as Deputy Director of the Central Statistical Office in 1991 having been awarded the well-deserved honour of Companion of the Order of the Bath. His career in government statistics covered a period in which a great many changes occurred. The UK's decentralized system had considerable strengths in which the main role of the statistician was seen as ensuring that statistical methods were brought to bear on the work of Government in an efficient and effective way. John had the right combination of personal and professional qualities to do this well, as well as drawing on the experience gained in a wide variety of subject-matter areas to provide an invaluable contribution to the senior management of the Government Statistical Service in the latter part of his career. He was always mindful of the importance of strong interdepartmental co-operation, not only to provide the service that is needed by the Government of the day, but also to fulfil the wider demands for what we now refer to as national statistics. When it became clear that the decentralized system could no longer deliver a satisfactory statistical service to the Government or the nation he played an important part in the work leading up to the major reorganizations of the 1990s. In his fight against cancer John Erritt exhibited the same qualities of calm courage and practical common sense that made him such a valued friend and colleague. The many people at his service of thanksgiving in October 2002 were all reminded of the numerous occasions when his kindness, generosity and good humour had enriched their lives.

Electronic Resources: The Ohio State University EESEE Project

Electronic resources aid in the teaching and learning of statistics by providing data that may be used interactively by teachers and students. By interacting with the data students are encouraged to discover knowledge and thereby gain a deeper understanding of statistical concepts. The Electronic Encyclopedia of Statistical Examples and Exercises (EESEE) is an electronic resource that includes over 80 ‘real-world’ examples about the uses and abuses of statistics. These examples are drawn from published and printed media and the diverse range of subject-matter areas make it suitable for use in any statistics course.

Too Little Too Late: American High Schools in an International Context

In recent years, increasing attention has focused on the inadequate preparation of American students for future jobs as well as for life in general. This complaint is heard from both industry and higher education. The most recent National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reports continue to remind the public that a large majority of twelfth graders are below proficiency in most subject matter areas, including mathematics, science, U.S. history, civics, and geography. From 70 to 90 percent of high school seniors scored below the proficient level on each of these subject matter tests. 1 The results are somewhat better only in reading, with 60 percent of the students scoring below the proficient level. 2 The NAEP Governing Board defined proficiency as the level that all students should reach. In mathematics and science, the proportion of students below the proficient level was estimated to be around 80 percent. 3

Electronic resources: the Ohio state university EESEE project

Electronic resources aid in the teaching and learning of statistics by providing data that may be used interactively by teachers and students. By interacting with the data students are encouraged to discover knowledge and thereby gain a deeper understanding of statistical concepts. The Electronic Encyclopedia of Statistical Examples and Exercises (EESEE) is an electronic resource that includes over 80 ‘real-world’ examples about the uses and abuses of statistics. These examples are drawn from published and printed media and the diverse range of subject-matter areas make it suitable for use in any statistics course.