Phytolith Studies Research Articles

Multi-analytical characterisation of wheat biominerals: impact of methods of extraction on the mineralogy and chemistry of phytoliths

Phytoliths from two different wheat species, Triticum monococcum and Triticum durum, known for their long-lasting significance to humans, were studied by a multi-analytical approach. Characterisation of phytoliths assisted in understanding their microstructure and behaviour after extraction from plants by the dry ashing and the wet ashing methods. The phytoliths extracted from different parts of the plant, namely the inflorescence and the stem-leaves, were characterised by optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (ED-XRF), elemental CHNS analysis, thermogravimetric and differential thermogravimetric analysis (TGA-DTGA) and scanning electron microscopy coupled by energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM/EDS). The plants were cultivated at the same period and under the same climatic conditions in the Pella area, northern Greece. The mineralogical and chemical composition of the recovered phytoliths is controlled by the extraction method, strongly suggesting that comparison of phytoliths extracted from plants is meaningful only if the method of extraction remains the same. Physicochemical characteristics of fresh phytoliths extracted from plants provided useful information on the their preservation state after laboratory processing that may further contribute to the study of aged phytoliths in archaeological sites.

Pen management and livestock activities based on phytoliths, dung spherulites, and minerals from Cova Gran de Santa Linya (Southeastern pre-Pyrenees)

The archaeological evidence from Cova Gran de Santa Linya suggests that during the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age, the site was used as a livestock enclosure where the accumulated excrements were burned, generating a sequence known by the term fumier. Here we present the results of an integrated study of silica phytoliths, dung spherulites, and mineral composition of sedimentary matrix from the remaining Holocene sequence. The use of fire to sanitize the space had important consequences for the preservation of dung spherulites and the accumulation of phytoliths. Phytolith assemblages indicate that the animals enclosed in the cave were mostly sheep that exploited the pastures nearby the site during the year. In this sense, the results from our modern plant reference collection challenge the assumption that grass inflorescence phytolith can be used as a seasonality indicator.

International Code for Phytolith Nomenclature (ICPN) 2.0.

Opal phytoliths (microscopic silica bodies produced in and between the cells of many plants) are a very resilient, often preserved type of plant microfossil. With the exponentially growing number of phytolith studies, standardization of phytolith morphotype names and description is essential. As a first effort in standardization, the International Code for Phytolith Nomenclature 1.0 was published by the ICPN Working Group in Annals of Botany in 2005. A decade of use of the code has prompted the need to revise, update, expand and improve it. ICPN 2.0 formulates the principles recommended for naming and describing phytolith morphotypes. According to these principles, it presents the revised names, diagnosis, images and drawings of the morphotypes that were included in ICPN 1.0, plus three others. These 19 morphotypes are those most commonly encountered in phytolith assemblages from modern and fossil soils, sediments and archaeological deposits. An illustrated glossary of common terms for description is also provided.

Bulliform Phytolith Size of Rice and Its Correlation With Hydrothermal Environment: A Preliminary Morphological Study on Species in Southern China.

In the last decade, our understanding of rice domestication has improved by new archaeological findings using advanced analytical techniques such as morphological and morphometric analyses on rice grains, spikelet bases and phytoliths, and ancient DNA analysis on rice remains. Previous studies have considered the size of rice bulliform phytoliths as a proxy for tracking the domestication process. These phytoliths are often abundant and well preserved in sediments, and their shape is under the control of numerous genes, which may shift toward larger sizes by genetic mutation in domestication. Therefore, it has been assumed that the bulliforms of domesticated rice are usually larger than those of wild ones; however, morphometric data supporting this assumption are lacking in the literature, thereby requiring additional evidence to test its veracity. In this study, the vertical and horizonal lengths of bulliform phytoliths were measured in four rice species (domesticated Oryza sativa and wild Oryza rufipogon, Oryza officinalis, and Oryza meyeriana) from different regions of southern China. We found that the bulliform morphometric data of wild and domesticated rice overlapped and that there was no statistically significant difference between them. Therefore, bulliform size could not be used as a diagnostic indicator to distinguish domesticated rice from wild species and is a supporting rather than conclusive proxy for determining the domesticated status of rice in archaeological research. We further found that larger rice bulliform sizes likely occurred at the locations with higher temperature, precipitation, and water levels, indicating hydrothermal environment is an alternative factor influencing the size of rice bulliform phytoliths. For further archaeological use of an increasing size trend of bulliform phytoliths to reveal the process of rice domestication, we present some suggestions for controlling the influence of hydrothermal factors. Even so, the combination of bulliform phytolith size with other established criteria is strongly suggested to provide precise identification of wild and domesticated rice in future research.

A study of phytoliths produced by selected native plant taxa commonly used by Great Basin Native Americans

Reference collections of phytoliths from plant taxa commonly used by the ancient inhabitants of an archaeological site are critical to researchers conducting analyses on these microbotanical remains. Phytoliths recovered from the site are compared to those in reference collections to make inferences about which taxa were being used, as well as where, why and how. This study presents one of the first reference collections of phytoliths from selected taxa likely to have been used by Native American peoples living in the Great Basin area. The results are presented as a list of taxa which we sampled, and that are known to have been used by these tribes, such as the Shoshone and Ute, with illustrations of the range of phytolith morphotypes produced by each taxon. Our hope is that this tool will prove to be a ready and valuable resource for any researchers conducting phytolith analysis at Great Basin Native American sites.

Assessing the Potential of Phytolith Analysis to Investigate Local Environment and Prehistoric Plant Resource Use in Temperate Regions: A Case Study from Williamson’s Moss, Cumbria, Britain

ABSTRACT The archaeological site of Williamson’s Moss, located in north-west England, was excavated in the 1980s as part of an investigation of the Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Bronze Age populations living around the estuary of the River Esk in Cumbria. Recovery of plant remains was generally low, but bulk sediment samples were collected from different contexts as part of a project archive for future analysis. This paper presents the results of new analyses conducted on these archived samples, carried out to assess whether phytolith analysis could offer additional insights into the local environment and plant use at the site. Whilst the results indicate the presence of a diverse range of phytolith types from both monocotyledon and dicotyledon plants (along with sponge spicules, diatoms and microcharcoal), interpretation of the data is problematic. Comparison with existing palynological and excavation data indicate methodological limitations in using bulk archived samples. Nevertheless, the recovery of abundant microfossil material is encouraging for the emerging field of phytolith studies in temperate environments such as Britain, and suggestions are made regarding future sampling strategies and taphonomic considerations that will reduce problems for future analyses.

Archaeobotanical proxies and archaeological interpretation: A comparative study of phytoliths, pollen and seeds in dung pellets and refuse deposits at Early Islamic Shivta, Negev, Israel

This article presents a systematic methodological comparison of three archaeobotanical proxies (phytoliths, pollen and seeds) applied to an assemblage of dung pellets and corresponding archaeological refuse deposits from Early Islamic contexts at the site of Shivta. We set out with three main methodological questions: one, to evaluate the relative input of botanical remains from dung in refuse assemblages; two, to evaluate each archaeobotanical dataset and to test whether they are comparable, complementary or contradictory in their interpretations from dung; and three, infer herding practices at the site during the Early Islamic period. Our findings show that ovicaprine dung accumulated in Early Islamic Shivta during at least two periods: mid-7th–mid-8th centuries CE, and late-8th–mid-10th centuries CE. Methodologically, we see incomplete and incompatible reconstructions arise when each method is considered alone, with each proxy possessing its own advantages and limitations. Specifically, the amount of preserved seeds in dung pellets is low, which restricts statistical analysis and tends to emphasize small or hard-coated seeds and vegetation fruiting season; yet this method has the highest taxonomic power; pollen preserves only in uncharred pellets, emphasizes the flowering season and has an intermediate taxonomic value; phytoliths have the lowest taxonomic value yet complete the picture of livestock feeding habits by identifying leaf and stem remains, some from domestic cereals, which went unnoticed in both seed and pollen analyses. The combined archaeobotanical reconstruction from samples of the mid-7th–mid-8th centuries suggests that spring-time herding at Shivta was based on free-grazing of wild vegetation, supplemented by chaff and/or hay from domestic cereals. For the late-8th–mid-10th century samples, phytolith and pollen reconstruction indicates autumn-winter free-grazing with no evidence of foddering. Unlike the dung pellets, macrobotanical remains in the refuse deposits included domestic as well as wild taxa, the former mainly food plants that serve for human consumption. Plant remains in these refuse deposits originate primarily from domestic trash and are only partially composed of dung remains. The significance of this study is not only in its general methodological contribution to archaeobotany, but also to lasting discussions regarding the contribution of dung remains to archaeological deposits used for seed, pollen and phytolith analyses. We offer here a strong method for determining whether deposits derive from dung alone, are mixed, or absolutely do not contain dung. This has important ramifications for archaeological interpretation.

Phytoliths of six woody species important in the Carpathians: characteristic phytoliths in Norway spruce needles

Phytoliths—also known as plant opals—are preserved in soils and sediments and have taxonomical relevance, therefore phytoliths can be fingerprints of the vegetation of the period from which they originated. Comparative phytolith studies are essential for finding phytolith morphotypes with taxonomic relevance. These are used to build reference collections for future palaeoecological and archaeobotanical studies. Biogenic silica extracted from the leaves of six woody species commonly occurring in temperate climate plant communities was examined using light and scanning electron microscope methods (Deciduous broad-leaved species: Corylus avellana, Fagus sylvatica, Quercus robur. Coniferous species: Abies alba, Picea abies, Pinus sylvestris). The element content of phytoliths was analysed by SEM EDX and the phytolith taxonomic diagnostic potential of element content was tested by discriminant analysis. An inventory of phytolith types with their anatomical origin was provided and type-frequencies were assessed. Three species have been systematically screened here for the first time in detail (C. avellana, F. sylvatica, Q. robur). This is the first time that a characteristic cubical phytolith morphotype (“Picea—blocky type”) originating from transfusion tissue was described as a distinct layer encompassing the central cylinder of the needle. High concentrations of aluminium and magnesium in phytoliths are associated with two of three conifer species. A. alba and P. sylvestris could be differentiated statistically on the basis of elemental content. Our findings open up the possibility to identify these taxa based on their phytoliths and it is anticipated that this could be a useful tool for phytolith identification originating from soils and sediments as well. Moreover, Picea—blocky type allows comparative, in situ studies (amongst others isotopic) to provide the possibility of finding further measurable proxies.

Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios of surface food residues in pre-Columbian ceramics from the southern Pacific of Costa Rica as evidence of prehistoric human diets

Introduction: to understand and interpret the consumption of plants and animals by humans in the past requires the investigation of different lines of evidence. Identifiable macroscopic remains of plants and animals, for example seeds and bones, are frequently found at archaeological sites and provide key data on food resources. Their analysis is complemented by the study of pollen grains or phytoliths of cultivated plants within archaeological horizons or in sediment cores recovered from lakes and wetlands near archaeological sites. Another important source of information on human diets in the past consists of food residues preserved in or on artefacts excavated from archaeological sites. Objective: to examine food residues in archaeological pottery from coastal and interior sites in the southern Pacific region of Costa Rica. Methods: we focus on isotopic analysis of carbonized food residues preserved on the inner surfaces of ceramic pots, plates, and other ceramic pieces from archaeological excavations in the intermediate zone (elevations 500-1500m) and coastal zone of the southern Pacific region of Costa Rica. Isotopic analysis of surface food residues on pottery relies on the fact that stable isotopes of carbon (12C and 13C) and nitrogen (14N and 15N) in foods differ based on the photosynthetic pathway of plants and on trophic level. Results: in our analysis of material from twelve sites we found evidence of diets with high amounts of C4 plants (likely maize), legumes, herbivores, and mixtures, but we did not find robust evidence of food residues with isotopic signatures characteristic of reef animals and mollusks, even though some sites are shell mounds. Conclusion: our research represents one of the first studies of surface food residues from Costa Rican pottery, and indicates the potential for studies of this type to strengthen understanding of indigenous subsistence patterns through time and across Costa Rican archaeological regions.

An integrated micromorphological and phytolith study of urban soils and sediments from the Gallo‐Roman town Atuatuca Tungrorum, Belgium

AbstractTongeren is the only Roman administrative capital within the borders of present‐day Belgium. It developed in the first century A.D. and became an important civitas. Many excavations in the center of town have uncovered complex stratigraphic sequences, including dark earths, dating to Roman as well as early medieval times. Their interpretation, based on traditional archaeological methods, often remains problematic. A large‐scale excavation at Vermeulenstraat in 2014 is the first occasion where a geoarchaeological study was conducted using both micromorphology and the study of phytoliths in thin sections. The aim was to evaluate the impact of depositional and post‐depositional processes, to gain an understanding of the formation of the dark earths encountered on the site, to characterize the deposits between and underneath them, and to identify and differentiate human activities and natural phenomena. The results show a range of different activities and events, such as cultivation, construction (including floor preparation), destruction, waste dumping, and gardening. Their different formation histories illustrate the evolution of the area, and their analysis provides an important precedent for the further geoarchaeological study of this town.

Advance of research on modern soil phytolith

Phytolith study is a new branch of micropaleontology with an increasingly important role in geology, archaeology, and plant taxonomy. Phytoliths have several advantages considering their characteristics of small particle size, high production, wide distribution, anti-decomposition, in situ deposition, distinctive morphologies, and element sequestrating capacity. Phytolith assemblages in modern soil have been found to be closely related to modern vegetation types and climate conditions, which forms the basis for the quantitative study of paleoecology, paleoclimate, and bio-geochemical cycles. At present, phytolith studies generally focus on the following four aspects: (1) Morphology: about 260 unduplicated types of phytoliths have been identified in modern soil, of which 110 types are from grasses, 50 types from ferns, woody plants and other angiosperms, whereas the origin plants of the remaining 100 types are still under investigation. (2) Soil phytolith assemblages and vegetation: phytolith assemblages from the topsoil have been used to distinguish surface vegetation types including different forests and grasslands over a typical region. This model has been applied to restore past vegetation conditions and monitor the dynamic evolution of specific vegetation types at different temporal and spatial scales. (3) Soil phytolith assemblages and climate: quantitative and semi-quantitative relationships between phytolith assemblages and a series of climate parameters, such as annual mean temperature, annual mean precipitation and altitude, have been established through mathematical analysis. In this manner, quantitative reconstruction of paleoclimatic parameters has been achieved through the phytolith-climate transfer function model. (4) Soil phytolith and its sequestered elements: in this topic, the content of soil PhytOC (Phytolith-occluded Organic Carbon) and the importance of PhytOC in the bio-geochemical cycle have been the focus. The study of modern soil phytoliths has provided new approaches and many successful cases for solving specific problems in various fields, such as Earth science and archaeology. This study analyzed existing issues in addition to the abovementioned significant progresses, and provides directions for future research on modern soil phytoliths.

Análisis de los silicofitolitos presentes en especies de las familias Cannabaceae, Moraceae y Urticaceae del SE bonaerense y estudio comparativo de los cistolitos

Numerosas familias producen silicofitolitos en sus tejidos, los cuales constituyen una herramienta de importancia taxonómica y paleobotánica. Una de las morfologías producidas en dicotiledóneas son los cistolitos, definidos como concreciones de carbonato de calcio con un esqueleto silíceo. Este esqueleto silíceo puede quedar preservado en suelos y sedimentos, constituyendo una morfología diagnóstica para estudios fitolíticos paleoambientales y arqueológicos. En este trabajo se analizaron silicofitolitos de seis especies de las familias Cannabaceae, Moraceae y Urticaceae, todas productoras de cistolitos. Los silicofitolitos se extrajeron mediante técnicas de calcinación; se describieron las morfologías y realizaron mediciones a los cistolitos, bajo microscopios óptico y electrónico de barrido. Se aplicaron tests estadísticos para evaluar diferencias. Todas las especies estudiadas producen silicofitolitos, reportándose las primeras descripciones en tres especies de Urticaceae y una de Moraceae. Se describieron cistolitos de variada forma, pelos y fitolitos poliédricos, y fue posible la diferenciación, al menos a nivel de familia. Celtis spp (Cannabaceae) y Morus alba L.(Moraceae) producen cistolitos diferentes a las especies de Urticaceae y presentan una protuberancia o pelo asociado, son más angostos y más cortos. Estas características, así como las variables morfométricas medidas, podrían ser utilizadas para la diferenciación de estos taxa en el registro fitolítico fósil.

Paleovegetação da Ilha Grande (Rio de Janeiro) no Holoceno através do estudo de fitólitos e isótopos do carbono (Paleovegetation of Ilha Grande (Rio de Janeiro) in the Holocene through the study of phytoliths and carbon isotopes)

Este estudo objetivou contribuir para o conhecimento das condições ambientais da Ilha Grande no Holoceno, usando como indicadores os fitólitos e os isótopos do carbono. Na Ilha Grande, maior ilha do litoral do estado do Rio de Janeiro, predomina a vegetação de Mata Atlântica, com florestas, restinga, e vegetação de afloramentos rochosos. Foram estabelecidas inicialmente as coleções de referências modernas de assembleias fitolíticas de plantas e solos, para posterior comparação com assembleias fósseis. Foram analisadas 28 plantas de diferentes famílias, 5 assembleias modernas de solo e 31 amostras retiradas de 2 testemunhos e 3 perfis de solo. Os fitólitos das plantas foram extraídos por via ácida e os de solo por eliminação de carbonatos, matéria orgânica, óxidos de ferro e por separação densimétrica. As análises fitolíticas indicam que nos últimos 4.000 anos cal AP a vegetação da Ilha Grande foi predominantemente arbórea, resultado corroborado pelas análises de isótopos estáveis de Carbono, que mostraram predomínio de plantas do tipo C3. Não foram observadas grandes mudanças nas características das formações vegetais em relação às atuais, com predomínio da floresta ombrófila, demonstrando um padrão bioclimático semelhante ao atual e evidenciando que a cobertura vegetal da Ilha Grande tem mantido uma condição de equilíbrio com as características climáticas e edáficas da região neste período. Os fitólitos das assembleias fósseis se encontram profundamente alterados, como resultado da intensidade dos processos erosivos na região, relacionados à elevada pluviosidade e gradiente do relevo, o que dificulta a preservação dos fitólitos mais frágeis, como os short-cells. A B S T R A C TThis study aims to contribute to the knowledge on environmental conditions on Ilha Grande during the Holocene, using phytoliths and carbon isotopes as indicators. Ilha Grande, the largest island on the coast of the state of Rio de Janeiro, has a predominant vegetation of Atlantic Forest, with forests, “restinga” and rocky outcrop vegetation. Modern reference collections of phytolith assemblages from plants and soils were established for later comparison with fossil assemblages. We analyzed 28 plants from different families, 5 modern soil assemblages and 31 samples taken from 2 sediment cores and 3 soil profiles. Plant phytoliths were extracted using acid and soil phytoliths through removal of carbonates, organic matter, iron oxides and densimetric separation. The phytolith analyses indicated that during the last 4,000 years cal BP the vegetation has been predominantly arboreal, a result corroborated by the Carbon stable isotope analyses, which showed a predominance of C3 plants. No major changes were observed in the characteristics of the vegetal formations in relation to the present ones, demonstrating a bioclimatic pattern similar to the current one, with predominance of the rainforest, showing that the vegetation cover of Ilha Grande has maintained a condition of balance with the climatic and edaphic characteristics of the region in this period. Phytoliths from fossil assemblages are profoundly weathered, as a result of the intensity of the erosive processes in the region, related to the high rainfall and high relief gradient, which makes preservation of the most fragile phytoliths, like the short-cells, difficult.Keywords: paleoenvironmental reconstruction; bioindicators; Atlantic Forest.

Phytolith analysis from the archaeological site of Kota Cina (North Sumatra, Indonesia)

In archaeological sites where plant remains (charcoal, seeds, pollens…) are not preserved, phytoliths constitute a major proxy to provide information about resources and human practices. Because of their siliceous structure, they offer new perspectives to reconstruct environmental changes and human development. This paper presents the first phytolith analysis in Sumatra (western Indonesia) from the historical archaeological site of Kota Cina. This site was an ancient trade harbour of the Strait of Malacca between the XI–XIVth centuries AD. Nowadays, it is located at 7 km from the coast.This study aims to assess the potential of phytoliths in a coastal tropical wetland. The objectives of this paper are (1) to document the vegetation evolution in a coastal environment changing in Kota Cina during the last 1000 years and (2) the human activities impact (e.g. land clearings, cultivations) on the environment. The phytolith assemblages of seventeen modern soil samples collected in various habitats and twenty-six fossil samples were analysed. The results underline the potential of the phytolith signature and the difficulties of interpretation of the assemblages of certain environments, especially because of a complex taphonomy. However, in combination with geomorphological and archaeological data, the study of phytoliths provides four stages of vegetation changes over the last 1000 years: (1) before the first human settlements, the volcano-sedimentary sequence of the site is devoid of phytoliths; (2) in the XIth century AD, the estuarine environment of Kota Cina is covered with a dense forest to the south and a palm mangrove to the north; (3) between the XIIth and the XIIIth centuries AD, the vegetation changes with the first human settlements and siltation of the estuarine land. Poaceae morphotypes increase and the first cultivated plants are identified as Musaceae. In the north, the vegetation is similar to that of the XIth century AD; (4) After the XIIIth century AD and the abandonment of the site, a widespread opening of the vegetation occurs as attested by the increase of Poaceae GSCP. This is probably the result of the human land clearings due to the development of colonial plantations from the XIXth century onwards in a more terrestrial geomorphological context.

鬼界カルデラ噴火（7.3ka）が南九州の植生および人類に与えた影響－植物珪酸体分析による検討

鬼界カルデラ噴火（7.3ka）が南九州の植生および人類に与えた影響－植物珪酸体分析による検討

Phytoliths in plants from the south coast of the Greater Cape Floristic Region (South Africa)

This is the first quantitative and morphological study of phytoliths from a diversity of plant species (56 spp., 23 genera and 14 families), growth forms (Restionaceae (restios) and Poaceae (grasses), bulbous plants, shrubs and trees) and plant parts (leaves, wood, scale leaves of the bulbs, culms and stems) from the Greater Cape Floristic Region (GCFR). The GCFR's south coast is an area with longest record of occupation by modern humans, and is thus of great archaeological significance. This study aims at building a phytolith reference collection of modern plants from the southern coast of the GCFR that are likely to have been used by past populations inhabiting the south coast of South Africa. A total of eighty phytolith morphotypes were identified in the whole data set. Poaceae and Restionaceae produced characteristic phytolith morphotypes that did not occur in other plant groups. Many other phytolith morphotypes occurred in more than one plant group. We confirmed that grasses are the highest phytolith producers. Restio phytoliths are unique characteristic of the Restionaceae and these are mainly derived from the parenchyma cells of the culms. The lack of diagnostic phytolith morphotypes that can be used for taxonomic identification in geophytes makes their identification difficult in the paleoanthropological record.

One, two, three phytoliths: assessing the minimum phytolith sum for archaeological studies

The number of phytolith studies has increased steadily in the last decades in palaeoecological as well as archaeological research, and phytolith analysis is currently recognised as a proper area of expertise within archaeobotany. This has led towards a strengthening in the standardisation of the different steps involved in analysis; e.g. sampling strategies, laboratory extraction or processing of plant material/soils for the creation of reference collections. In spite of this, counting procedures remain one of the areas that could be further developed. The aim of this paper is to assess representativeness of phytolith count size in archaeological samples and specifically to assess whether an increase in total number of individuals counted influences the number or distribution of morphotypes observed. Two statistical tests are performed to evaluate the representativeness of count size: phytolith sum variability analysis (PSVA) and morphotype accumulation curve (MAC). The analyses show the relationship among the number of counted phytoliths, the variability (that is, the number of different morphotypes identified) and the stabilisations of the MACs. Results allow us to support the standard count size in phytolith studies, which ranges from 250 to 300 particles. Together with a quick scan, this strategy should produce a precise and clear phytolith assemblage for archaeological studies.

People and plants. Piecing together archaeological and archaeobotanical data to reconstruct plant use and craft activities in Mycenaean Tiryns

Archaeobotanical data are often employed to reconstruct a site’s or a region’s palaeoecology, human use of plants such as agricultural regimes, and the interplay between vegetation and anthropogenic factors in the palaeoenvironment. This paper aims to show that a context-specific integration of such data helps to guide the focus beyond the macroscale and may thus add significantly to the reconstruction of microscale activity areas. New archaeobotanical data from four different find spots in the Lower Citadel of Tiryns, Greece, dating to the Mycenaean Palatial and Post-Palatial periods highlight the importance of combining the analysis of the fruit/seed macroremains with anthracological and phytolith studies and integrating these results in their archaeological contextual study. Based on the data from botanical non-wood macroremains, wood charcoal, and phytoliths, the paper discusses methodological issues such as differential preservation of archaeobotanical remains that only becomes evident if more than one analytical method is employed. The paper additionally presents a contextual interpretation of archaeological finds and archaeobotanical remains that adds to a holistic picture of specific activity areas, production sequences, and the multifunctional use of installations.

Palaeoecological interpretation of the late Miocene landscapes and vegetation of northern Greece: A comment to Merceron et al., 2016 (Geobios 49, 135–146)

Recent works on feeding habits of ungulates, isotopic composition of equid tooth enamel, and phytoliths from late Miocene localities of northern Greece suggested the presence of savannah and excluded dense forests. Furthermore, Mediterranean-like climates were advocated for the late Miocene of Greece. Here, I compare palaeoenvironments inferred for two mammal localities from Chalkidiki and the Axios Valley (Nikiti, upper Vallesian and lower Turolian; Dytiko, upper Turolian) with evidence from contemporaneous plant assemblages from adjacent areas in Greece and Bulgaria. I use vegetation units inferred from pollen and spore, fruit and seed, and leaf assemblages and compare them with the vegetation inferred from mammal and phytolith data. Open vegetation as inferred from mammal and phytolith data is also part of the range of vegetation units discovered from the pollen and spore, seed and fruit, and leaf record (here called the palaeobotanical record). Poaceae are consistently present in late Vallesian to late Turolian pollen records of northern Greece. Further, a number of vegetation units are indicative of forest vegetation ranging from lowland to upland forests dominated by woody angiosperms and mixed coniferous-angiosperm forests. The presence of such forests is not in conflict with the results from mammal and phytolith studies, but it broadens the view on landscapes present in the late Miocene of northern Greece. In addition to a generalized vegetation type commonly inferred by mammal studies, the palaeobotanical record demonstrates the presence of various complementary vegetation types. A comprehensive view on late Miocene landscapes in northern Greece shows that there is no conflict in inferring open herb dominated landscapes and light to dense forests and provides new opportunities for the ecological interpretation of late Miocene ungulates.

Human-environment dynamics during the Holocene in the Australian Wet Tropics of NE Queensland: A starch and phytolith study

The timing and nature of hunter-gather exploitation of tropical rainforests is a topic of ongoing debate. In contrast to most other tropical regions, permanent settlement in Australian rainforests developed much later, and in the absence of adjacent agricultural economies. Here we explore how the tropical rainforests of northern Queensland were exploited during the late Holocene through an ancient starch and phytolith record spanning the last 2000years. Sequences at the two sites under study – Urumbal Pocket (a ‘Eucalyptus pocket’ surrounded by rainforest) and Goddard Creek (within the rainforest) – indicate a human presence since the early Holocene, coincident with the re-establishment of rainforest in the region. Toxic starchy nuts and the associated complex processing underpinned permanent settlement. Using a geometric morphometric approach to starch analysis, a range of economic starch producing plant species were identified including Endiandra palmerstonii, E. insignis, Lasjia whelani and Beilschmiedia bancroftii in the Urumbal pocket sequence. The phytolith record shows that Urumbal Pocket has been a ‘Eucalyptus pocket’ for at least the last 2000years, the open nature of the vegetation maintained by regular burning. Goddard Creek, on the other hand has been closed forest, with a changing profile as fire was used more frequently over time. The starch and phytolith sequence provide a unique insight into the local history of these rainforest archaeological sites, with a record that can be viewed against the backdrop of regional sequences documenting climatic and environmental patterns during the late Holocene.