Geological Studies Research Articles

ASEAN geology bibliometric analysis: A way forward for sustainable development

Geology has facilitated societal growth and development. This study analysed the latest development in geology research within 10 ASEAN countries. The VOSviewer software was utilised to examine the distribution of bibliometric maps. The data was acquired from the Scopus database through a data filtering process using the “geology” terms contained in the title, keyword, and abstract. A total of 2,319 articles published between 2018 and 2022 were chosen to capture the prevailing latest circumstances. The findings showed a notable change in geology study throughout the five-year duration, with the number of articles published decreasing from 407 in 2018 to 265 in 2022. The VOSviewer association strength method further revealed the five terms with the highest frequency occurrences, namely geology (794 occurrences), structural geology (259 occurrences), engineering geology (278 occurrences), geophysics (240 occurrences), and remote sensing (214 occurrences). The terms were further categorised into seven distinct clusters, consisting of geology, structural geology, seismology, economic geology, deposits, engineering geology, and volcanoes. Both Indonesia and Malaysia were the most significant countries associated with the geology terms. The emerging latest terms adopted were gas engineering, environmental technology, tourism, machine learning, and sustainable development. This study serves as a valuable point of reference and a source of contemplation for researchers seeking to explore additional research areas, particularly in the field of geology within the ASEAN territory.

A mineralogical and geological study for tungsten extraction from alkaline granite in Abu Kharif area, North Egyptian Nubian Shield

ABSTRACT Wolframite-quartz vein-type represents a significant global tungsten resource essential to tungsten production. In the northern Arabian-Nubian Shield (Egypt), such mineralisation is associated with the Abu Kharif alkaline granite (614.6 ± 3.6 Ma). Mineralised quartz veins, containing mixed wolframite ore (603.7 ± 7.4 Ma), occur along the contact between these granites and metavolcanic rocks, accompanied by extensive alkali alteration. Wolframite is the foremost valuable mineral in this ore, along with scheelite and hübnerite. Despite extensive research on Abu Kharif alkaline granites and associated ore, tungsten extraction from the mineralised quartz remains understudied. This study presents an efficient method for tungsten extraction involving two stages: physical beneficiation and chemical processing techniques. An optimal tungsten recovery was achieved using a Na2CO3 fusion leaching technique, yielding a high tungsten trioxide concentration in the tungsten concentrate after chemical scrutiny. Key variables, including temperature, time, and concentrate-to-Na2CO3 ratio, were analysed for their impact on leaching efficiency. Experimental results indicate that the fusion leaching method achieves optimal efficiency with a concentrate-to-Na2CO3 ratio of 1/2.5, a fusion time of 3 h, and a fusion temperature of 600 °C. The fusion leaching tests showed that more reagents, higher temperatures, and longer exposure time did not significantly improve the leaching process.

Prospecting potential evaluation based on geological factor analysis-a case study of Jiaojiacheng ore belt

Mineral forecasting is of great significance for social development. As an important aspect of geological exploration, its importance lies not only in its direct contribution to economic growth but also in how it employs precise technical methods for mineral exploration. This study utilizes a geological factor analysis method that combines various complex geological observation factors into a few dominant comprehensive factors, followed by causal research and multivariate statistical analysis for classification. Based on this, the study applies principles and methods of elemental geochemistry to identify the dispersion and concentration patterns of associated elements from the distribution characteristics of ordered accompanying factors, providing a scientific basis for mineralization forecasting. Using geochemical experimental data, geological survey comprehensive profiles, and factor score contour maps, this paper analyzes the southern extension segment of the Jiaojia gold mine mineralization belt through geological factor analysis. It was found that the anomalous distribution of chemical elements F4 (Hg, Au, Pb) exhibits certain regularities, which significantly indicate mineralization information and suggest the presence of two main longitudinal mineralization belts.

Environmental effects of acid mine drainage and rehabilitation options at closed mine site: a case study.

Irregular waste storage at closed mine sites poses severe environmental problems. This study evaluates the concentrations and effects of trace elements released into the environment by mining activity by analyzing soil, water, and sediment samples taken from a copper mining site. According to the data, acidic mine drainage was the main cause of the high concentrations of trace elements in the soil and sediments, including arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and copper (Cu). The concentrations of As, Cd, Pb, and Cu in soil and sediments were 2734-times, 1189-times, 157-times and 32 times higher, respectively, in comparison to the background values of averaged concentrations of these elements in the upper crust. Geological and statistical studies indicate that the primary constituents of these pollutants are chalcopyrite and pyrite derivatives present in the primary rock structure. Using water analysis data from 2011 to 2020, the release of essential trace element into water was investigated to monitor the environmental effects of acidic mine drainage (AMD) from the closed Kuvarshan copper mine in the Artvin region of Turkey. This study demonstrates that trace elements concentrations may change according to local and seasonal factors and highlights the importance of conducting routine environmental monitoring studies.

Geological study of the seafloor applied to marine renewable energies

ABSTRACT This paper shows an example of how to create morphological and geological maps of the seabed combining high-resolution bathymetric data and onshore geological information. The mapped area corresponds to the BIMEP offshore test site, located in the south-eastern part of the Bay of Biscay, in the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula. In the Morphological map, using semi-automatic methods, the seafloor is categorized in 10 classes, obtained by the combination of terrain variables and a decision table. In the Geological map, onshore-defined geological units are extended into the continental shelf, and bedding traces, folds, and fractures are depicted. These maps could serve as valuable tools for stakeholders involved in marine energy projects, enabling informed decision-making and promoting sustainable development practices.

Rock Slope Stability Assessment for Selected Sites at Imam Mohammed Road \ Sulaimaniyah Governorate \ Northern Iraq

A detailed engineering geological study was performed for rock slope stability for several selected sites at Imam Mohammed Road that connects Sulaimaniyah city and Darbandikhan town, the study included four sites in which a comprehensive survey was made for the rock slopes, the rocks forming them, and discontinuities affecting in them. The assessment of rock slope stability of the sites was executed through the stereographic projection, to determine the status of the slopes and discontinuities, field measurements revealed many occurred and probable failure types represented by the rock fall and sliding. The rock slopes were also classified based on three factors; divergence angle (parallel, oblique lateral, and orthogonal), Laterality (right and left emergent), and concordance (concordant and discordant). The rocks forming the slopes are described geometrically based on their color, grain size, texture, discontinuities, weathering, rock strength, lithology, and permeability. On the other hand, the risk of each site was also assessed depending on the Landslide Possibility Index (LPI), which showed that the first site lies within the (moderate hazard) category whereas the others lie within the (High hazard) category. Finally, some treatment strategies were proposed in order to stabilize the slopes and decrease the danger of their collapse on the road.

Applied Terminology in Geodiversity and Geotourism Activity: a Sustainable Conceptual Exercise

Objective: Promoting environmental geoconservation, geodiversity and local culture, namely through tours and research on these natural environments. Theoretical Framework:t is based on modern scientific definitions used in geology, geomorphology, paleontology, culture, and for educational and geotourism purposes. Method:The literature review significantly contextualizes knowledge and broad understanding, as well as advances in the terminology most used in geotourism activity, adopted in Brazil and European references in the area.It is representativeness: relational: the suitability of the geosite to illustrate a geological process or quality, which contributes significantly to the understanding of the theme, process, characteristic or (i) representation: geological context, (ii) integrity: related to the state of conservation of the geosite, (iii) rarity: number of geosites in the geological study area, (iv) scientific knowledge. Results and Discussion:The results obtained revealed that review studies of specialized terminology applied in geodiversity and geotourism activity play a significant role in interpreting unique places where most geosites occur, attracting tourists who are increasingly surprised by geosites. Research Implications:The implications of geosite terminology do not involve universal consensus, and there are several ways to scientifically describe a geosite in the context of a type of terrestrial relief, geological structure and minerals. This interpretation should be carried out by a specialist or by experienced people who are knowledgeable about the local specificities. Originality/Value: This study contributes to the literature by addressing the terminology applied in geoscience that encompasses geodiversity and geotourism. The relevance and potential of geosites for education, scientific interpretation of geological characteristics in the central region of the North Amazon.

Testing Astronomical Solutions With Geological Data for the Latest Cretaceous: An Astronomically Tuned Time Scale

AbstractAstronomical solutions form the backbone of accurate dating for geology and paleoclimate studies. Beyond 50 Ma, however, the chaos inherent in the solar system makes it impossible to calculate a unique astronomical solution. Geological data have been used to constrain the chaos in order to arrive at an astronomically calibrated time scale up to the end‐Cretaceous. Here, we adopt and extend this approach into the latest Cretaceous, by re‐analyzing the Zumaia and Sopelana composite proxy records from the Maastrichtian. We find that the filtered total light reflectance () record is most compatible with the astronomical solution ZB20a. However, the results are sensitive to parameter choices in our algorithm, which we describe in detail. Nevertheless, we present evidence in favor of using solution ZB20a for cyclostratigraphic applications during the latest Cretaceous. Intervals with very long eccentricity nodes (VLNs) (low amplitude in the short eccentricity cycle) in the astronomical solutions that coincide with large amplitudes in the short eccentricity‐related peaks in the filtered proxy record rule out alternatives.

Geoelectric heterogeneities of the Pre-Dobrudga Trough a zone of hydrocarbon manifestations

For the first time, a geological and geoelectrical interpretation of the three-dimensional model of the Earth’s crust and upper mantle was carried out for the Pre-Dobrudga Trough and adjacent areas. It was based on observations of the Earth’s low-frequency electromagnetic field conducted in 2009―2012 by the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine. The material confidently indicates that hydrocarbon occurrences are confined to the detected anomalies of high electrical conductivity. These are characterized by subvertical channels (from the surface to 10 km deep) galvanically connected with sediments or sub-vertical contact zones of different resistivity observed not only in the Earth’s crust (10―40 km) but also at crust-mantle depths (40―60 km) and in the upper mantle (110―160 km).The channels may determine the flow of ultra-deep fluids. The geoelectric criteria included maximum thickness of the sedimentary stratum, subvertical rise of electrical conductivity anomalies from the crust-mantle depths or column to the entire thickness of the Earth’s crust, subvertical boundaries of heterogeneities (contacts of different resistivity) in the consolidated Earth’s crust and upper mantle,presence of a highly conductive asthenospheric layer. We identified a significant number of local areas that can be considered promising for hydrocarbon occurrence. The majority of them spatially coincided with the already well-known oil and gas fields ― Skhidnosaratske and Zhovtoyarske, with the explored oil and gas prospective areas (Izmailska, Kyslytska, Prymorska, Shyrokivska), and with those that correspond to the areas of special permits for industrial exploration. However, the newly discovered areas that meet most of the geoelectric criteria, but for which no no information on oil and gas content is publicly available, clearly require additional geological and geophysical studies. It has been shown that zones of high electrical conductivity caused by the presence of deep fluids should be considered as deep centers of hydrocarbon generation and ways of their migration to the upper horizons of the Earth’s crust.

HYDRO GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION FOR GROUND SOURCE HEAT PUMP SYSTEM INSTALLATION IN SEMI-ARID REGION OF CAMEROUN

Hydrogeophysical parameters of the ground play a vital role in heat transfer of ground source heat pump (GSHP) systems. Then, the investigation of the ground is necessary for the design and planning of GSHPs. This paper deals with investigations of Hydrogeophysical parameters of GSHP systems in Cameroon. Eighty-four drillings with the average deep of forty-seven meters have been performed in the Far North region of Cameroun in order to get hydrogeological and hydro geophysical characteristics of ground for shallow energy utilization. The results of geological study, vertical electrical sounding, pumping test, thermophysical properties, groundwater property and well data could help to understand better the heat transfer of borehole heat exchanger (BHE) and geo localization of potential GSHP in residentials of Logone et Chari, Cameroon. Closed systems of GSHP could be installed in the study area.

Petrographic Characterisation and Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction of the Kipala Shales (Central Basin, DRC, Kwilu Province)

In order to fill the glaring gaps in geological data for the Kipala region, in the Kwilu province of the Democratic Republic of Congo, geological studies were carried out. The results identified four different lithofacies in the study area: dark greasy shale, feldspathic microgres, clayey sandstone and bituminous shale. The petrographic compositions and palaeoenvironmental conditions of the deposit are presented for the first time in this work. From a petrographic point of view, the rock samples analysed differ in the nature of their constituent minerals and/or matrix or cement. Similarly, there is a close relationship between local lake and river sediments. The size and degree of rounding of the clayey sandstones in the rocks studied suggest that they were transported over a long period under strong hydrodynamic conditions.

Evaluation of the source and mechanisms of groundwater recharge for the southern sections of the western Afar rift margin and associated rift floor

Study areaSouthern Sections of Western Afar rift margin and associated rift floor. Study focusThe purpose of this study is to identify the source and mechanisms of groundwater recharge based on geological, hydrochemical, and environmental isotope studies. New hydrogeological insightsThe investigation illustrate that the columnar jointed basalt was extended from the plateau to the rift margin. In addition, transverse structures trending NW-SE and NE-SW connect the plateau to the rift margin and the marginal grabens to the rift floor. The hydrochemical interpretations with EC and TDS shows that the groundwater from the plateau has evolved from Ca-dominated and slightly mineralized to Na-dominated and highly mineralized to the rift floor. Isotopically, the deep groundwater systems are depleted in the entire physiography in contrast to the shallow groundwater systems. Radon measurements are higher at the outlets of the marginal grabens and between the rift margin and the rift floor, suggesting groundwater feeds the river. A comprehensive analysis of the aforementioned results suggests that the deep circulating groundwater is recharged in the plateau and escarpment and chemically altered with increasing depth and along its preferential flow path into the rift floor. Therefore, the plateau area is the main source of recharge for the western Afar rift margin and associated rift floor, due to the presence of preferential pathways, mainly the columnar jointed basalts and cross-structures.

Geology, Archaeology, and Historical Studies of the Late 16th Century Plinian Eruption of Raung Volcano: A Potential Case for Disaster Geotourism in Ijen UNESCO Global Geopark, East Java, Indonesia

The enigmatic major eruption in the late 16th century, believed to have originated from Raung, the most active stratovolcano in the Ijen UNESCO Global Geopark in East Java, Indonesia, has ignited significant debate among researchers and historians due to its profound impact on the region. This research aims to substantiate Raung as the likely source of the major eruption by integrating geological, archaeological, and historical data. This study synthesizes current findings and explores ongoing debates surrounding historical volcanic activities. Eruption parameters suggest that the late 16th century eruption exhibited a Plinian type, characterized by an explosive eruption column reaching the stratosphere, widespread pumiceous tephra fallout, and pyroclastic density current (PDC). Stratigraphic succession reveals that the eruption occurred in five phases, with deposits from 10 eruptive units. These deposits are mainly concentrated on the northwestern flank of Raung. Archaeological findings, historical records, and local legends converge to pinpoint the occurrence of this catastrophic event in the late 16th century. These diverse sources estimate that the eruption resulted in approximately 10,000 casualties, marking it as one of the most significant volcanic disasters in the past 500 years. The implications of this eruption extend beyond historical documentation, providing a critical case study for advancing disaster mitigation strategies through geotourism in the geopark area. Moreover, the eruption record outcrops identified in this study can be proposed as potential new geosites within the Ijen UNESCO Global Geopark, enhancing its educational and touristic value. We propose the Jebung Kidul, Alas Sumur, and Batu Sappar sites as potential disaster-based geosites, considering that these sites record the eruption process and preserve archaeological structures. This addition would not only commemorate the historical event but also promote awareness and preparedness for future volcanic activities in the region.

Drilling liquid from plant based oil using carbon based nanoparticles

The risks of disposal associated with using mineral-based drilling liquids have prompted the search for alternatives. Despite their long-standing use in the industry, mineral-based liquids pose challenges due to their eco-toxicity, poor biodegradability, and low fire resistance. Recently, vegetable-based liquids have gained attention for their excellent environmental friendliness and high fire resistance. In this study, a green drilling liquid was developed from non-food grade vegetable oil. The base liquid was extracted and the oil underwent epoxidation to enhance the thermal stability. Two different carbon-based nanoparticles were synthesized from coconut shells and graphite. The graphene nanoparticles derived from graphite exhibited a higher surface area compared to those from coconut shells. The properties of the developed graphene nanomud, such as gel strength, thermal conductivity, specific gravity, mud viscosity, mud filtrate properties, cutting carrying index, electrical conductivity, and toxicity, were investigated and compared with diesel-based nanomud. Results showed that neem graphene nanomuds possess properties that are comparable to, and in some cases better than diesel-based oil mud. The addition of 0.25–2.0 wt.% of graphene nanoparticles increased the electrical conductivity of the fluid from 58.7 to 229.5 µS/cm at 25 °C, enabling the use of resistivity imaging techniques for wellhole geological studies. Additionally, the nanofluids demonstrated desirable thermal conductivity, ranging from 0.138 W/m·K to 0.267 W/m·K at 25 °C, making them suitable coolants. Furthermore, toxicity tests using bean plants demonstrated that graphene-based nanomuds are environmentally friendly and could offer a cleaner, more sustainable option for drilling operations.

Geotechnical Justification for Designing Landslide Prevention Measures

Abstract When designing anti-landslide measures, slope stability assessment is an important factor and is determined by conducting comprehensive engineering and geological studies on a slope with potential landslide risks. The results of correct engineering and geological justification for the design of anti-landslide measures lead to the preservation of the structure and safe operation of infrastructure facilities. Our experience shows that to eliminate the negative effects of landslide processes, it is necessary to accurately determine the engineering and geological conditions of the slope, including the stability of the slope, taking into account natural dynamic phenomena (seismicity of the territory and tectonic processes) and, if possible, to see the complete elimination of the causes that lead to landslide processes when developing anti-landslide measures. To achieve these goals, the geotechnical justification of the design is the only correct solution. Geotechnical justification of protective measures intended to protect the structural elements of the Baku-Russian Federation State Border highway, which is part of the north-south transport corridor and passes through the foot of a potentially landslide-hazardous slope west of the city of Shabran, is one of the most important conditions that increase the effectiveness of these measures. On a slope located 1500 meters southwest of the current research area, the results of our scientific research were not properly utilized and many of our warnings were not heeded, resulting in a landslide during construction, leading to serious damage to the road's structural elements (Fig. 1) and additional costs. This event once again confirms that landslides are the most common natural and man-made processes that pose a threat to the safe operation of infrastructure facilities, civil and industrial construction in mountainous and foothill areas (Shiraliyev et al., 2024)

Late devonian calc-alkaline high-k fractionated “Ferroan” I-type leucogranites (Rudny Altai)

The paper presents the geological, geochemical and isotope-geochronological studies of the Rudny Altai granitoids in the west of Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) – the front part of the Altai convergent margin of the Siberian continent. Isotopic U–Pb dating of zircons showed an age range from 367 to 363 Ma. Geochemical characteristics indicate the relevance of leucogranites to calc-alkaline high-K series (SiO2 73 wt.%, Na2O+K2O = 6.9–9 wt.%, Na2O/K2O = 0.7–1.2), with calc-alkaline and alkaline-calcic affinities (MALI = 6.32–8.41). They bear meta- to weakly-peraluminous values (A/CNK = 0.9–1.2), high Fe* index (0.84–0.97) and high fluorine (0.04–0.17 wt.%) content. Variations of HFSEs, LILEs contents, Ga/Al ratios and strong negative A/CNK-P2O5 correlation indicate their affinity with fractionated I-type granitoids. Rare metal (beryllium) mineralization is spatially and genetically related to leucogranites. It is assumed that the formation of granitoids was associated with shearing setting at the convergent margin of the Siberian continent, as a result of oblique subduction of the Irtysh-Zaisan ocean plate.

Characteristics and Tectonic Implications of the Geomorphic Indices of the Watersheds around the Lijiang–Jinpingshan Fault

The Lijiang–Jinpingshan fault (LJF) is an important secondary boundary fault that obliquely cuts the Sichuan–Yunnan rhombic block. It is of great significance for understanding the tectonic evolution of the Sichuan–Yunnan rhombic block and even the southeastern margin of the Tibet Plateau. Based on a digital elevation model (DEM), this work combines ArcGIS with MATLAB script programs to extract geomorphic indices including slope, the relief degree of the land surface (RDLS), hypsometric integral (HI), and channel steepness index (ksn) of 593 sub–watersheds and strip terrain profiles around the LJF. By analyzing the spatial distribution characteristics of the geomorphic indices and combining the regional lithology and precipitation conditions, the spatial distribution of the geomorphic indices around the study area was analyzed to reveal the implications of the LJF’s activity. The results of this work indicate that (1) the distribution of geomorphic indices around the LJF may not be controlled by climate and lithological conditions, and the LJF is the dominant factor controlling the geomorphic evolution of the region. (2) The spatial distribution patterns of geomorphic indices and strip terrain profiles reveal that the vertical movement of the LJF resulted in a pronounced uplift on its northwest side, with tectonic activity gradually diminishing from northeast to southwest. Furthermore, based on the spatial distribution characteristics of these geomorphic indices, the activity intensity of the LJF can be categorized into four distinct segments: Jianchuan–Lijiang, Lijiang–Ninglang, Ninglang–Muli, and Muli–Shimian. (3) The activity of the LJF obtained from tectonic geomorphology is consistent with the conclusions obtained in previous geological and geodesic studies. This work provides evidence of the activity and segmentation of the LJF in tectonic geomorphology. The results provide insight for the discussion of tectonic deformation and earthquake disaster mechanisms in the southeastern margin of the Tibet Plateau.

Spatial distribution and deposits of cliffs along the Brazilian semi-arid coast

Cliffed coasts are common landforms found worldwide, but their precise spatial distribution and the nature of associated deposits may present regional gaps. This works presents a geological and geomorphological study of the Brazilian semi-arid coast (∼900 km), which was carried out on coastal cliffs with the aim of addressing three important knowledge gaps: i) spatial distribution of coastal cliffs, analyzed using topographic data from SRTM, LiDAR and field surveys, ii) the lithology and ages of the deposits, investigated through sedimentological analysis and OSL dating, and iii) origin of the cliffs, explored through relations with global and regional sea-level curves. The supply of terrigenous sediments to the western equatorial Atlantic coast was also considered. Coastal cliffs were identified along 235 km of the coastline, represented mainly by inactive cliffs (∼170 km). These cliffed coasts are composed mainly by poorly sorted siliciclastic sandstones and conglomerates, deposited in the Late Pleistocene. The depositional phases correlate with abrupt climate changes, due to pulses of terrigenous supply to the continental margin during the Heinrich Events. The formation of marine cliffs in these deposits occurred in the mid-Holocene, as sea level reached current elevation (msl) in ∼7 ka and 2-4 m above in ∼5.5 ka. This previous higher sea-level supports the widespread occurrence of inactive cliffs. The findings in this work contribute to i) improved mapping of coastal landforms, with higher resolution data demonstrating that previous works underestimated the presence of coastal cliffs; ii) the coastal cliffs are cut in Pleistocene sediments instead of older, Miocene deposits of the Barreiras Formation as previously assumed; iii) cliff formation due to marine erosion occurred in the mid- to- late Holocene; iv) the siliciclastic sediments that compose the cliffs are correlatable to marine sediments found in adjacent offshore areas, highlighting the role of abrupt global climatic changes in the Pleistocene in shaping contemporary coastal landscapes.

Палинологическое обоснование стратиграфического расчленения и корреляции отложений беловежского горизонта плейстоцена Беларуси

The Belovezhian stage is a part of the Middle Pleistocene of Belarus. It is located between the Narevian and Berezinian glacial stages and consists of three substages: Borkovian, Nizhninian and Mogilevian. Belovezhian stage corresponds to the Muchkapian one in the stratigraphic scheme of the Pleistocene of the European part of Russia, which is also subdivided into the Glazovian, Podrudnyanian and Konakhovian substages and located between the Donian and Okian glacial stages. Generalization and analysis of the results of accumulated palynological and geological studies indicate that the Borkovian, Nizhninian and Mogilevian substages can be assigned a higher status — stages. Arguments in favor of such a division are presented in this paper. This point of view was repeatedly expressed earlier, but was not accepted in the modern stratigraphic scheme of the Pleistocene of Belarus. Another topical issue of the stratigraphy of this part of Pleistocene, considered within this article, is the validity of the Korchevian substage within the Narevian glacial stage. According to the available palynological data, the deposits of the Korchevian substage are characterized by a similar sequence and features of pollen zones as the Mogilevian accumulations within the Belovezhian stage, and therefore their age should be determined as Mogilevian. To substantiate the conclusions, a detailed interregional correlation of the studied deposits with the corresponding deposits of other regions of Europe by pollen zones was carried out and presented in this article.

THE IMPORTANCE OF EXPANDING RESEARCH ON THE SERPENTINIZATION OF OPHIOLITE ROCKS BY NATURAL “WHITE” HYDROGEN FOR KAZAKHSTAN

In Kazakhstan, options and regions for hydrogen production are being considered, including in Western Kazakhstan, the Mangystau region, using the water of the Caspian Lake. The current advanced hydrogen production technologies, including green hydrogen, are very expensive, requiring billions of dollars of investment and potentially creating difficulties for the local population and nature, ecology, flora and fauna. At the same time, geological studies of alternative hydrogen production options in Kazakhstan are poorly developed. Kazakhstan needs and is currently very important to study serpentinization of ophiolite rocks using natural «white» hydrogen. In many countries, there is practically a «gold rush» now, hydrogeologists are conducting research on the search for natural «white» hydrogen. Hydrogeologists have now discovered numerous sources of natural hydrogen in geological environments from Mali to Switzerland, France, Germany, the USA, Canada, and Australia. More than 50 companies have sprung up to discover and mine it. A natural hydrogen well operates in Mali to provide energy to a local city with a population of about 4,000 people for free and forever. Unlike other geological fuels, which are formed over millions of years, natural hydrogen is generated by mixing water and iron particles, serpentinization of ophiolite rocks, and is renewable on the scale of human time, and not in geological epochs. Alternative options for the production and use of hydrogen are presented in this review, including various types of hydrogen, black, gray, green, blue, turquoise, pink and yellow, depending on the method of its extraction and production. Kazakhstan, with the richest natural ore reserves, including coal and polymetals, where ophiolite rocks may be located, may well have deposits of natural «white» hydrogen, such geological studies in Kazakhstan are poorly developed.