Singapore Strait Research Articles

A numerical study on land-based pollutant transport in Singapore coastal waters with a coupled hydrologic-hydrodynamic model

Frequent flooding events and intensive agricultural, economic and industrial activities in Singapore-Malaysia Catchment have made Singapore coastal waters come under high risk of land-based pollution. A coupled hydrologic-hydrodynamic model is employed to perform three-dimensional land-based pollutant transport simulations in Singapore coastal waters. The hydrologic model component (2012 version of Soil and Water Assessment Tool) is found to be able to predict streamflow accurately, with correlation coefficients larger than 0.9 and a high Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency of more than 0.8. The hydrologic model (SWAT) is coupled with the hydrodynamic model (SUNTANS) by transferring streamflow and pollutant concentrations at nine rivers along common boundaries. The coupled hydrologic-hydrodynamic model is validated with observed sea surface elevations and velocities. A low Root-Mean-Square-Error (RMSE) of 0.10m and a high correlation coefficient of 0.98 are observed for sea surface elevations. The coupled model predicts depth-averaged U and V velocities accurately, with low RMSEs of 0.06m/s and 0.07m/s respectively and high correlation coefficients exceed 0.95. During the Northeast monsoon, pollutants from Source 1 (Johor River), Source 2 (Tiram River), Source 3 (Layang River) and Source 4 (Layau River) are dispersed into the Singapore Strait after around 2days of release, with Johor Estuary and Tekong Island highly affected. During the Southwest monsoon, it takes around 9days for pollutants from Sources 1–4 to affect the whole Johor Estuary and Tekong Island, which almost four times of dispersion time during the Northeast monsoon. The overall mean dispersion coefficient K¯ of 47.99m2/s during the Northeast monsoon is roughly four times that of 11.33m2/s during the Southwest monsoon, due to larger amount of land-based pollutants are introduced by streamflow in December and differences in the large-scale monsoon effects. It is found that the dispersion coefficient K obeys a “4/3-law”, with the length scale L defined as the distance of the center of concentration travelled.

Occurrence and distribution of bacteria indicators, chemical tracers and pathogenic vibrios in Singapore coastal waters

Water quality in Singapore's coastal area was evaluated with microbial indicators, pathogenic vibrios, chemical tracers and physico-chemical parameters. Sampling sites were grouped into two clusters (coastal sites at (i) northern and (ii) southern part of Singapore). The coastal sites located at northern part of Singapore along the Johor Straits exhibited greater pollution. Principal component analysis revealed that sampling sites at Johor Straits have greater loading on carbamazepine, while turbidity poses greater influence on sampling sites at Singapore Straits. Detection of pathogenic vibrios was also more prominent at Johor Straits than the Singapore Straits. This study examined the spatial variations in Singapore's coastal water quality and provided the baseline information for health risk assessment and future pollution management.

Development of a quantitative risk assessment model for ship collisions in fairways

This study develops a quantitative risk assessment (QRA) model to evaluate the risk of ship being involved in ship collisions which takes into account the frequency and consequence of all possible accident scenarios. Two accident consequence types including human life loss and oil pollution which is measured in terms of the volume of oil spilled are considered in this study. The proposed QRA model consists of a collision frequency estimation model, an event tree and consequence estimation models. The event tree comprises five intermediate events including ship type, ship size, loading condition, hull damage and survivability. Two “generic” mathematic models are developed to estimate the human life loss and oil pollution caused by ship collisions, respectively. A case study is finally created using the real-time ship movement data in the Singapore Strait from the Llyod’s Marine Intelligence Unit (Lloyd’s MIU) database. Results show that the container ship, bulk carrier and oil tanker are the three main ship types being involved in collision accidents. Although the passenger/RORO ship has the lowest frequency being involved in collisions, it will suffer the most serious consequence in terms of the human life loss once it is involved in an accident. Considering the relative high percentage of oil tankers involving in ship collisions and their severe consequences, focus should be placed on the tracking and management of oil tanker traffic.

A numerical study on flow and pollutant transport in Singapore coastal waters

Intensive economic and shipping activities in Singapore Strait have caused Singapore coastal waters to be under high risk of water pollution. A nested three-dimensional unstructured-grid SUNTANS model is applied to Singapore coastal waters to simulate flow and pollutant transport. The small domain (~50m resolution) Singapore coastal model is nested within a large domain (~200m resolution) regional model. The nested model is able to predict water surface elevations and velocities with high R2 values of 0.96 and 0.91, respectively. Model results delineate the characteristics of circulation pattern in Singapore coastal waters during the Northeast and Southwest monsoons. The pollutants are modeled as passive tracers, and are released at six key sailing locations Points 1–6 in Singapore coastal waters and are named as Passive Tracers 1–6, respectively. Our results show that the rate of dispersion is twice as large for the Northeast monsoon compared to the Southwest monsoon due to differences in large-scale monsoons and small-scale local winds. The volume averaged concentration (VAC) diminishes faster and the local flushing time is shorter during the Northeast monsoon than the Southwest monsoon. Dispersion coefficients K and the VAC decreasing rate are maximum for Tracers 2 and 3 with shortest local flushing time due to the strong surrounding currents and abrupt bathymetry changes near Senang and St. John Islands. Dispersion coefficients K and the VAC decreasing rate are minimum for Tracer 1 due to weak currents induced by the semi-enclosed coastline near Tuas. It is found that both the lateral dispersion coefficient Ky and the compound dispersion coefficient K obey a “4/3-law”, which defines a linear correlation between dispersion coefficients and 4/3-power of selected length scale.

A storm surge forecasting system for the Singapore Strait

AbstractBeing a small low-lying island nation, Singapore has a high density population, recreational and industrial facilities along the coast. It is thus highly vulnerable to weather extremes including storm surges. Strong sea level surges due to the northeast monsoon when coinciding with spring tides may lead to coastal floods in the southwest regions of the South China Sea including Singapore Strait, with the heights of about 0.3-0.5 m observed from tidal records and satellite altimetry. We developed an operational system codenamed “Stormy” to provide storm surge forecasts for the Sunda Shelf with focus on the Singapore Strait for a lead time of 6–7 days. Stormy has been working operationally since February 2013, successfully capturing storm surge events on 19–30 December 2013 and 14–23 February 2014. Stormy’s web-based portal has an intuitive visual user interface which conveniently offers forecast products, including evolutional plan-view and time-series of storm surge heights compared with historical anomalies.

Legal Framework on the Marine Environment Protection of Straits used for International Navigation: Has It Been Effective in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore?

There are approximately 116 straits used for international navigation around the world. Some of them are important international maritime chokepoints, namely the Dover Strait, Hormuz Strait, Straits of Malacca and Singapore and the Russian straits across the Northeast Arctic Passage. Due to the high number of navigational traffic going through these straits, vessel-source pollution is endemic in these waters. This article examines the applicable international legal framework on protection of the marine environment of straits used for international navigation such as Part XII of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and other related legal measures like International Maritime Organization conventions on protection of the marine environment. This article concludes by stating that the present framework is not sufficient in properly balancing two vital interests in the maritime world – protection of the marine environment vis-a-vis shipping.

Projected sea level rise and changes in extreme storm surge and wave events during the 21st century in the region of Singapore

Abstract. Singapore is an island state with considerable population, industries, commerce and transport located in coastal areas at elevations less than 2 m making it vulnerable to sea level rise. Mitigation against future inundation events requires a quantitative assessment of risk. To address this need, regional projections of changes in (i) long-term mean sea level and (ii) the frequency of extreme storm surge and wave events have been combined to explore potential changes to coastal flood risk over the 21st century. Local changes in time-mean sea level were evaluated using the process-based climate model data and methods presented in the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fifth Assessment Report (IPCC AR5). Regional surge and wave solutions extending from 1980 to 2100 were generated using ∼ 12 km resolution surge (Nucleus for European Modelling of the Ocean – NEMO) and wave (WaveWatchIII) models. Ocean simulations were forced by output from a selection of four downscaled ( ∼ 12 km resolution) atmospheric models, forced at the lateral boundaries by global climate model simulations generated for the IPCC AR5. Long-term trends in skew surge and significant wave height were then assessed using a generalised extreme value model, fit to the largest modelled events each year. An additional atmospheric solution downscaled from the ERA-Interim global reanalysis was used to force historical ocean model simulations extending from 1980 to 2010, enabling a quantitative assessment of model skill. Simulated historical sea-surface height and significant wave height time series were compared to tide gauge data and satellite altimetry data, respectively. Central estimates of the long-term mean sea level rise at Singapore by 2100 were projected to be 0.52 m (0.74 m) under the Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP)4.5 (8.5) scenarios. Trends in surge and significant wave height 2-year return levels were found to be statistically insignificant and/or physically very small under the more severe RCP8.5 scenario. We conclude that changes to long-term mean sea level constitute the dominant signal of change to the projected inundation risk for Singapore during the 21st century. We note that the largest recorded surge residual in the Singapore Strait of ∼ 84 cm lies between the central and upper estimates of sea level rise by 2100, highlighting the vulnerability of the region.

Sea level anomalies in straits of Malacca and Singapore

This paper studies sea level anomaly (SLA) behaviour in Malacca and Singapore straits which serve part of a major maritime trade route between Indian and Pacific Ocean using both observed data and numerical model. Spatio-temporal behaviour of SLA in the region is analyzed based on 15 years of in-situ and remote sensing data. Results show that SLA signatures can be distinctly different in the two straits, with vastly opposite behaviours during certain months. By further analyzing spatial dependency of observed SLA in the region, SLA in Malacca and Singapore straits are found to be under the influence of Indian Ocean and South China Sea, respectively. Based on this insight, a numerical model is built with the appropriate non-tidal forcing derived from meteorological model and satellite dataset to properly represent SLA in Malacca and Singapore straits with Root Mean Square Error of less than 10cm. With this well calibrated model, the effect of different types of forcing on volume flux through the straits is investigated. Combined tidal and non-tidal forcing in the model gives 4 to 7×1011m3 of annual net westward volume flux through the straits which is four to seven times higher than that of tidal forcing alone. Furthermore with this combined forcing, a distinct seasonal trend with westward net flow during northeast monsoon (November to March) and eastward net flow during southwest monsoon (May to September) can be observed through the straits in the model which is not observed with tidal forcing. The findings of this paper highlight the importance of these non-tidal forcing in the model to obtain accurate SLA and flow representation in the straits that is vital to environmental fate and transport modelling during operational forecast.

ESTIMATION OF EXHAUST SHIP EMISSION FROM MARINE TRAFFIC IN THE STRAITS OF SINGAPORE AND BATAM WATERWAYS USING AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM (AIS) DATA

This study focuses on the Strait of Singapore and Batam Waterways area because it is one of the world’s most congested straits used for international shipping. The study aims to estimate exhaust gas emission and the concentration of emission to several areas around the strait. This is accomplished by evaluating the density of shipping lanes in the strait by using the data which obtained by Automatic Identification System (AIS). MEET methodology is used to estimate emissions from ships. There were 1269 total number of ships through the strait on September 27, 2014 at 06.00 am-08.00 am produces total exhaust emission for NOx, CO, CO2, VOC, PM and SOx were about 12595.35 g/second (15.99%), 25725.19 g/second (32.66%), 11832.31 g/second (15.02%), 5973.23 g/second (7.58%), 443.71 g/second, (0.56%), 22185.57 g/second (28.17%), respectively. The ships under the Singapore flag contribute approximately 22.78% of total emissions in the Strait of Singapore and Batam Waterways followed by Panama, Indonesia and Malaysia 14.47%, 3.67%, 1.91%, respectively. Based on the total emission rates hips under Indonesia and Malaysia rank of seventh and eighth respectively.

An Empirically-Calibrated Ship Domain as a Safety Criterion for Navigation in Confined Waters

There are limited studies on the use of ship domain as the safety criterion for ship navigation within confined waters. In this paper, a free-form ship domain has been developed empirically for navigation in confined waters. Two individual domains of an asymmetrical polygonal shape have been assumed around the own ship and target ship, and the size of the ship domains is assumed to be dynamically enlarged with increased ship speeds. The required safe distance modelled using the proposed ship domain takes into account dynamic changes in relative bearing and heading. The model is calibrated using the data of vessel movements in Singapore Strait and Singapore Port. An innovative process has been adopted that iteratively adjusts the parameters in the basic ship domain of a stationary ship; a speed function as well as a weight function to maximise the usage of the dataset. The resulting ship domain model compares well with existing ship domains for typical encounters, such as those of Fujii and Coldwell but represents non-typical encounters more effectively than existing models.

Sea level trend and variability around Peninsular Malaysia

Abstract. Sea level rise due to climate change is non-uniform globally, necessitating regional estimates. Peninsular Malaysia is located in the middle of Southeast Asia, bounded from the west by the Malacca Strait, from the east by the South China Sea (SCS), and from the south by the Singapore Strait. The sea level along the peninsula may be influenced by various regional phenomena native to the adjacent parts of the Indian and Pacific oceans. To examine the variability and trend of sea level around the peninsula, tide gauge records and satellite altimetry are analyzed taking into account vertical land movements (VLMs). At annual scale, sea level anomalies (SLAs) around Peninsular Malaysia on the order of 5–25 cm are mainly monsoon driven. Sea levels at eastern and western coasts respond differently to the Asian monsoon: two peaks per year in the Malacca Strait due to South Asian–Indian monsoon; an annual cycle in the remaining region mostly due to the East Asian–western Pacific monsoon. At interannual scale, regional sea level variability in the range of ±6 cm is correlated with El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). SLAs in the Malacca Strait side are further correlated with the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) in the range of ±5 cm. Interannual regional sea level falls are associated with El Niño events and positive phases of IOD, whilst rises are correlated with La Niña episodes and negative values of the IOD index. At seasonal to interannual scales, we observe the separation of the sea level patterns in the Singapore Strait, between the Raffles Lighthouse and Tanjong Pagar tide stations, likely caused by a dynamic constriction in the narrowest part. During the observation period 1986–2013, average relative rates of sea level rise derived from tide gauges in Malacca Strait and along the east coast of the peninsula are 3.6±1.6 and 3.7±1.1 mm yr−1, respectively. Correcting for respective VLMs (0.8±2.6 and 0.9±2.2 mm yr−1), their corresponding geocentric sea level rise rates are estimated at 4.4±3.1 and 4.6±2.5 mm yr−1. The geocentric rates are about 25 % faster than those measured at tide gauges around the peninsula; however, the level of uncertainty associated with VLM data is relatively high. For the common period between 1993 and 2009, geocentric sea level rise values along the Malaysian coast are similar from tide gauge records and satellite altimetry (3.1 and 2.7 mm yr−1, respectively), and arguably correspond to the global trend.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION ON MARINE ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION OF OIL POLLUTION FROM VESSEL (A STUDY OF STRAITS MALACCA AND SINGAPORE)

This research is proposed to answer three problem. First, the rules of international law in the protection of the marine environment from oil pollution originating from vessel. Second, efforts were made by the three littoral countries cooperation in preventing, reducing and controlling oil pollution originating from vessel in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore. Third, the role of the government of Indonesia in prevention, reduce and control oil pollution originating from vessel in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore. This research is normative research using qualitative research methods. The research approach using statute approach and case approach. The results of this research shows that international law has been comprehensively regulate the protection of the marine environment from pollution by oil originating ships: the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 1982, The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ship (MARPOL) 73/78, International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness 1980, the Civil Liability Convention for Oil Damage (CLC) 1992 and the Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage (FUND) 1992. Second, Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore as states bordering the straits cooperate with other stakeholders (user states, user industries, IMO, NGOs) have established a cooperation mechanism in the form of cooperative forums, project coordination committee and the Aids to Navigation Fund. Third, Indonesia through its laws and regulations have ensured the prevention, reduction and control of oil pollution originating from vessel through Act No. 17 of 2008 on Shipping, Government Regulation No. 21 of 2010 on the Protection of Maritime Environment, and Presidential Decree No. 109 in 2006 on Disaster Emergency Due to Oil Spill in the ocean.

Investigation of Oil Tanker Accidents by using GIS

"This study focuses on marine accident data regarding accidents that occurred between the years 1998-2010 for ships within the oil tanker category. Data in the study include accident reports, which are recorded in the Global Integrated Shipping Information System (GISIS) and country reports. Textual accident data in the GISIS database were tabulated, thus creating a systematic database. By using accident data from this database, a marine accidents map for oil tankers was developed via the ArcGIS 10 program, the areas with the highest accident incident rates were determined, and reasons for oil tanker accidents were revealed through the assessment of factors such as accident type, accident incident number, accident scope, ship tonnage, navigational sea area type, and accident’s impacts on the environment, economy and personnel. The study showed that very high risk areas for oil tanker marine accidents include the Singapore Strait and Oresund, and high risk areas are the Bristol Channel, Suez Channel, Strait of Hormuz, Great Belt, Piraeus, Hull, ?stanbul Strait, and Amsterdam, respectively. The study also established that oil tanker accidents are related to ship tonnage and navigational sea area type."

Analyzing the physics of non-tidal barotropic sea level anomaly events using multi-scale numerical modelling in Singapore regional waters

The hydrodynamic flows in the Singapore regional waters (SRW) are the result of a complex mix of tide, seasonal and meteorological effects. The study of non-tidal effects or sea level anomalies (SLA) in this region has shown that it is possible to model some of these anomalies. The present study addresses the non-tidal barotropic water levels and currents in the Singapore region in detail. This analysis includes a multi-scale approach, and addresses amongst others hydrodynamic model grid resolution and the importance of resolving non-linear tide–surge interaction. The results show that the water level and current anomalies phenomena in a complex region like SRW can be effectively modelled using an approach combining non-tidal barotropic and multi-scale numerical modelling. A detailed investigation of the levels of non-linear tide–surge interaction is carried out by simulating SLA events in the Singapore regional waters during North-East (positive SLA) and South-West (negative SLA) monsoons based on ECMWF numerical weather forcing conditions. The results of combining both approaches suggest that the finer grid resolution improves the accuracy of water level and current anomalies simulations. Furthermore, the results also indicate that for the simulations of non-tidal barotropic flows in this area, non-linear tide–surge interaction is important and should be taken into account. Finally, the behaviour of the non-tidal barotropic flow in the region and its changes with tidal variation in the shallow region of the Singapore Strait is now much better understood. Therefore, for reliable operational forecast of sea level, the inclusion of non-linear tide–surge interaction should be required in numerical models to reproduce both tides and surges with improved accuracy in this region.

The Indonesian Legal Framework on Navigational Aids, Shipping Telecommunications and Ocean Shipping Lanes for Navigational Safety in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore

The Indonesian Legal Framework on Navigational Aids, Shipping Telecommunications and Ocean Shipping Lanes for Navigational Safety in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore

PULAU PISANG LIGHT: A NONMALAYSIAN LIGHTHOUSE ON A MALAYSIAN ISLAND

Pulau Pisang is a small island situated off the western coast of the Malaysian state of Johor at the southern end of the Straits of Malacca. The island is about 12 kilometres from Pontian Kechil and 5 kilometres from the town of Benut and is the site of the Pulau Pisang Light, a lighthouse guiding ships into the western entrance of the busy Singapore Strait. From colonial times, the Pulau Pisang Light has always been recognised as within the territory of the independent Sultanate of Johor. The Sultanate of Johor became a British protectorate in the twentieth century and upon independence, Johor became one of the states within Malaysia. Currently, the lighthouse is managed and operated by the Maritime and Port Authority (MPA) of Singapore and the lighthouse precinct is off limits to Malaysians. This article examines the status of Pulau Pisang as an island under Malaysian sovereignty. This article further looks at the possible future implications should Singapore continue to manage the Pulau Pisang Light that instigates the question: Will Pulau Pisang become another Pedra Branca?

Isotopic record of lead in Singapore Straits during the last 50 years: Spatial and temporal variations

The spatial and temporal variations of Pb were reconstructed from three corals along an east–west transect of the Singapore Straits — in proximity to one of the largest emerging Asian cities and one of the world's busiest ports. In addition to establish the variation in seawater Pb concentration, sources of Pb were also investigated via Pb isotopes in seawater and corals and compared with the isotopes in local aerosols and other potential Pb sources. The annual variation of Pb in Singapore corals seems to be related to local annual precipitation while the decadal-scale variation may be related to the long-term development of the region. The decrease of Pb/Ca in coral after 2005 coincided with the regional phasing out of leaded gasoline. The 206Pb/207Pb ratios in Singapore corals rose from as low as ~1.166 during the 1960s to ~1.189 by the late 1990s, and fluctuated between 1.180–1.198 from the late 1990s to 2010. 206Pb/207Pb in recent Singapore corals was elevated relative to Singapore atmospheric aerosols (~1.147, which is typical of urban aerosols throughout the southeastern Asian and Indonesian region). The linear distribution of 206Pb/207Pb vs. 208Pb/207Pb in triple isotope plots suggests two end-member mixing between the aerosol–Pb as a low 206Pb/207Pb end-member and an unidentified source with higher 206Pb/207Pb. Possible high 206Pb/207Pb sources include: surface runoff from imported south Chinese Pb, crustal materials from riverine inputs (sediments and suspended matter) or land reclamation, and vessels/dockyard activities.

Water Quality Modelling in the East Johor and Singapore Straits

The Singapore coastal water is bounded by the (East and West) Johor Strait in the North and the Singapore Strait in the South. The hydrodynamic currents in the Singapore Strait are dominated by semi-diurnal tides with a bias in the eastern (Southwest monsoon) or western (Northeast monsoon) directions. The salinity distribution within the coastal waterways reflects the relative influx of fresh water supplied by rivers, and depends on mixing ability of receiving water. Concentration of Total Suspended Solids (TSS), in addition to the above phenomena, is varying also on shear stress and the tidal stream. Salinity and TSS are the most basic water property parameters affecting the marine water quality and ecosystem. In this study, in-house 3D water quality model NEUTRO is used to simulate transport of salinity and TSS in the water column. The model is calibrated and validated using available data and is able to reproduce the observed salinity and TSS concentrations in both the East Johor and Singapore Straits fairly well, despite the complex physical processes evident in the study domain. This paper describes the results obtained for the baseline calibration of salinity and TSS in the model domain. This numerical modeling study helps to understand the behavior of baseline water quality and is useful for environmental impact assessment (EIA) in the Singapore coastal waters.

Genetic connectivity of the broadcast spawning reef coral Platygyra sinensis on impacted reefs, and the description of new microsatellite markers

As tropical coral reef habitats continue to be lost or degraded, understanding the genetic diversity and connectivity among populations is essential for making informed management decisions. This is particularly important in rapidly developing, land-scarce nations (such as Singapore) that require targeted conservation efforts. Sixty percentage of Singapore’s coral cover has been lost over the past five decades, and with further coastal reclamation underway, it is imperative to understand the effects of development on coral connectivity. In this study, we used seven microsatellite markers, of which six are newly described here, to investigate the genetic diversity and connectivity of the massive hard coral Platygyra sinensis at nine sites in Singapore and three in the nearby Indonesian island of Bintan. Our results show that P. sinensis currently retains large effective population sizes, high genetic diversity, as well as high connectivity among sites within each locality, which suggest that these populations have good potential for continued survival provided that there are no island-wide disturbances. However, the Singapore Strait appears to be a mild barrier to gene flow, which may lead to an increased reliance on self-seeding at either location. We suggest some directions for their management based on these potential population boundaries, which can help pave the path for marine conservation planning in Singapore.

Assessment of Kinetic Tidal Energy Resources Using SELFE

An investigation is carried out to study the theoretical tidal stream energy resource in the Singapore Strait to support the search for renewable energy in the effort to reduce the carbon footprints in the Southeast Asia. The tidal hydrodynamics in the Singapore Strait has been simulated using a Semi-implicit Eulerian-Lagrangian Finite-Element (SELFE) model solving the 3D shallow water equations with Boussinesq approximations. Potential sites, with high tidal current (2.5 m/s) and suitable for Tidal Energy Converter (TEC) array installation to generate sustainable energy, have been identified. Further, various operational factors for installation of Tidal Energy Converters are considered before computing the theoretical power output for a typical TEC array. An approximate estimation of the possible theoretical power extraction from a TEC array shows an energy potential of up to 4.36% of the total energy demand of Singapore in 2011. Thus, the study suggests a detailed investigation of potential sites to quantify the total tidal stream energy potential in the Singapore Strait.