Strains Worldwide Research Articles

The continuous evolution of SARS-CoV-2 and its variants poses persistent challenges to global public health. As a sublineage of the XDV.1 variant, NB.1.8.1 has rapidly emerged as a dominant strain worldwide, triggering a new wave of infections. Representing a product of viral adaptation, this variant has acquired several critical amino acid mutations—including A435S and T478I—which enhance its transmissibility and immune evasion capabilities compared to the ancestral XDV.1 lineage. This review systematically summarizes the genomic characteristics, epidemiological features, and immune escape potential of NB.1.8.1. It emphasizes that sustained genomic surveillance and serological assessments are crucial for informing public health response strategies, guiding vaccine development, and optimizing containment measures.

Cutaneous infection caused by Mycobacterium boenickei due to lipolysis injection: A case report.

The emergence of the SARS-CoV-2 JN.1 lineage in late 2023 marked a major shift in viral evolution. By January 2024, it had displaced XBB variants to become the dominant strain worldwide. JN.1 and its descendants are antigenically distinct from earlier Omicron subvariants, with approximately 30 additional spike mutations compared to XBB-derived viruses. The combination of these features alongside growing evidence of considerable immune evasion prompted the FDA to recommend that vaccine formulations be updated to target JN.1 rather than XBB.1.5. The continued dominance of JN.1-derived variants necessitates the characterization of viral infection in established animal models to inform vaccine efficacy and elucidate host–pathogen interactions driving disease outcomes. In this study, transgenic mice expressing human ACE2 were infected with SARS-CoV-2 subvariants JN.1, KP.2, and EG.5.1 to compare the pathogenicity of JN.1-lineage and XBB-lineage SARS-CoV-2 viruses. Infection with JN.1 and KP.2 resulted in attenuated disease, with animals exhibiting minimal clinical symptoms and no significant weight loss. In contrast, EG.5.1-infected mice exhibited rapid progression to severe clinical disease, substantial weight loss, and 100% mortality within 7 days of infection. All variants replicated effectively within the upper and lower respiratory tracts and caused significant lung pathology. Notably, EG.5.1 resulted in neuroinvasive infection with a significantly high viral burden in the brain. Additionally, EG.5.1 infection resulted in a significant increase in CD8+ T cell and CD11b+ CD11c+ dendritic cell populations in infected lungs.

Chronic diseases cause early death and financial strain worldwide. Cardio-metabolic health, crucial for preventing cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes, may benefit from bilberry's antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. This meta-analysis reviews studies of bilberry's impact on lipid profiles, glycemic indices, body composition, and inflammatory and oxidative factors. Inclusion criteria were randomized clinical trials assessing bilberry supplementation in adults for at least 1 week. A comprehensive review of literature was performed in PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar until July 21, 2024, without any time limitations. Mean changes and their SDs were used to calculate overall effect sizes, with the Hozo etal. method converting SEs, 95% CIs, and IQRs to SDs. A random-effects model accounted for between-study variations. Eleven RCTs, including 409 individuals, were incorporated into the present systematic review, and 8 were included in the meta-analysis. Combining five effect sizes from the five trials on long-term effects of bilberry administration compared with controls resulted in a non-significant decrease in FBG (WMD: -0.08 mmol/L, 95% CI: -0.22 to 0.07, p = 0.30). For HbA1c, the meta-analysis of three RCTs showed a marginally significant reduction (WMD: -1.63%, 95% CI: -3.36% to 0.11%, p = 0.06). The results of the meta-analysis on lipid profile showed a decreasing trend, although this reduction was not statistically significant for TC (WMD: -0.11 mmol/L, 95% CI: -0.30% to 0.08%, p = 0.27) or TG (WMD: -0.07 mmol/L, 95% CI: -0.32% to 0.19%, p = 0.62). However, a significant change in TG was reported in trials with a crossover design and RCTs with 4 weeks of intervention or less. Although HDL level did not show any significant change (WMD: -0.02 mmol/L, 95% CI: -0.10% to 0.07%, p = 0.70), the meta-analysis of five RCTs evaluating the long-term effects of bilberry supplementation revealed a significant change in LDL following bilberry supplementation (WMD: 0.07 mmol/L, 95% CI: 0.01%-0.14%, p = 0.01). Furthermore, no significant reduction was observed in SBP (WMD: -2.75 mmHg, 95% CI: -6.38% to 0.89%, p = 0.13) or DBP (WMD: -1.00 mmHg, 95% CI: -4.66% to 2.65%, p = 0.59) after bilberry supplementation. Finally, anthropometric indices including body weight (WMD: 0.04 Kg, 95% CI: -0.44% to 0.53%, p = 0.86) and inflammatory and oxidative stress markers including hs-CRP (WMD: -8.22 mg/L, 95% CI: -20.24% to 3.81%, p = 0.18), IL-6 (WMD: -7.19 pg/mL, 95% CI: -19.01% to 4.63%, p = 0.23), uric acid (WMD: -0.01 mmol/L, 95% CI: -0.03% to 0.01%, p = 0.36), and FRAP (WMD: -42.03 μmol/L, 95% CI: -100.54% to 16.48%, p = 0.16) showed no significant change after bilberry supplementation. Bilberry supplementation may have beneficial effects on HbA1c and TG, but not other cardio-metabolic indices. Therefore, long-term and high-quality trials are needed to confirm the promising effects of bilberries.

Flagellin deficiency drives multi-drug resistance in Salmonella through biofilm adaptation and efflux pump activation.

CPXV is responsible for animal diseases affecting cattle (Lumpy Skin Disease), sheep (Sheeppox), and goats (Goatpox). During outbreaks, these diseases have huge socio-economic effects. Now, no vaccination that is effective against sheeppox, goatpox, and lumpy skin disease is available. This work used an immunoinformatic methodology to discover possible targets for vaccination against CPXV. After the 122 CPXV proteins were obtained from the Vipr database, several investigations into the proteins’ virulence, antigenicity, toxicity, solubility, and IFN-g activity were carried out. Three outer membrane and extracellular proteins were selected to predict their B-cell and T-cell epitopes based on certain distinctive features. These epitopes exhibit conservation across three species, namely Sheeppox virus (SPPV), Goatpox virus (GTPV), and Lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) of CPXV. This will provide more comprehensive immunity against diverse virus strains worldwide. Nine MHC-I, MHC-II, and B-cell epitopes were selected to generate multi-epitope vaccine constructions. These constructs were linked using AAY, GPGPG, and KK linkers and 50S ribosomal protein L7/L12 adjuvants to enhance the immunogenicity of the vaccines. Molecular modeling and structural validation enabled the production of vaccine constructs with high-quality 3D structures. CPXV (Protein A35, Protein Resolve A22, and Scaffold Protein) was selected for further analysis because of its varied immunological and physiochemical properties (Number of Amino Acids, Molecular Weight (Daltons), Theoretical pI Aliphatic index, Grand average of hydropathicity (GRAVY), Instability index GC content, and CAI value) and docking scores. The bacterial expression system showed notable gene expression for the CPXV-V5 vaccine, as shown by computational cloning analysis. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations revealed structural stability and long-term epitope visibility, implying strong immune responses after delivery. These results suggest that the developed vaccines might be quite safe and effective in practical settings, and they offer a solid foundation for further experimental verification.

CPXV is responsible for animal diseases affecting cattle (Lumpy Skin Disease), sheep (Sheeppox), and goats (Goatpox). During outbreaks, these diseases have huge socio-economic effects. Now, no vaccination that is effective against sheeppox, goatpox, and lumpy skin disease is available. This work used an immunoinformatic methodology to discover possible targets for vaccination against CPXV. After the 122 CPXV proteins were obtained from the Vipr database, several investigations into the proteins' virulence, antigenicity, toxicity, solubility, and IFN-g activity were carried out. Three outer membrane and extracellular proteins were selected to predict their B-cell and T-cell epitopes based on certain distinctive features. These epitopes exhibit conservation across three species, namely Sheeppox virus (SPPV), Goatpox virus (GTPV), and Lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) of CPXV. This will provide more comprehensive immunity against diverse virus strains worldwide. Nine MHC-I, MHC-II, and B-cell epitopes were selected to generate multi-epitope vaccine constructions. These constructs were linked using AAY, GPGPG, and KK linkers and 50S ribosomal protein L7/L12 adjuvants to enhance the immunogenicity of the vaccines. Molecular modeling and structural validation enabled the production of vaccine constructs with high-quality 3D structures. CPXV (Protein A35, Protein Resolve A22, and Scaffold Protein) was selected for further analysis because of its varied immunological and physiochemical properties (Number of Amino Acids, Molecular Weight (Daltons), Theoretical pI Aliphatic index, Grand average of hydropathicity (GRAVY), Instability index GC content, and CAI value) and docking scores. The bacterial expression system showed notable gene expression for the CPXV-V5 vaccine, as shown by computational cloning analysis. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations revealed structural stability and long-term epitope visibility, implying strong immune responses after delivery. These results suggest that the developed vaccines might be quite safe and effective in practical settings, and they offer a solid foundation for further experimental verification.

Background:Classified by the WHO as one of the 19 most dangerous fungal pathogens, Pneumocystis jirovecii has been associated with increasing outbreaks of Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) among solid organ transplant (SOT) recipients worldwide. Mycophenolic acid (MPA), an inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH) inhibitor commonly used as an immunosuppressant to prevent organ rejection, is a risk factor for PCP. However, MPA also displays antifungal activity, potentially protecting against PCP, despite not being used to treat it. Therefore the underlying factors driving these outbreaks remain undefined.Methods:In this international multicenter retrospective observational study, P. jirovecii samples were collected from 96 SOT patients (including 94 from nine separate outbreaks and 84 on MPA therapy) and 67 non-transplant controls (none on MPA), between 1986 and 2020 across six countries in Europe, North America and Asia. All samples underwent extensive targeted sequencing of the P. jirovecii inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase (impdh) gene and multiple genetic markers, with selected samples further analyzed for complete mitogenome and restriction fragment length polymorphisms. Computational modeling was employed to predict the effects of IMPDH mutations on protein structure and MPA binding.Results:Six impdh mutations (including one previously reported) were identified, with frequencies of 4–21% each in SOT patients and 0–1% in controls. These mutations were strongly associated with prior MPA exposure and showed marked geographic segregation and temporal shifts. Four mutations were each linked to multiple distinct genotype profiles, representing separate P. jirovecii strains. Structure modeling predicted that these four mutations reduced protein stability and binding affinity to MPA.Conclusions:This study suggests that the widespread use of MPA in SOT recipients has unexpectedly driven the emergence of multiple impdh mutations in P. jirovecii, each presumably arising independently in multiple strains worldwide. These mutations likely confer drug resistance and provide a selective survival advantage to P. jirovecii in SOT recipients exposed to MPA, thereby facilitating transmission and outbreaks. These findings have significant implications for the prevention and clinical management of PCP in SOT recipients, highlighting a rare example of how antimicrobial resistance can emerge through unexpected pathways, transcending conventional antimicrobial use and emphasizing the need for increased vigilance and strategic adaptation in clinical practice.

The fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, is one of the major destructive pests of agriculture in Pakistan. The widespread use of insecticides for the management of S. frugiperda has resulted in the field-evolved resistance to insecticides in different strains worldwide. However, field-evolved resistance to insecticides has not yet been reported in S. frugiperda from Pakistan. Following reports of control failure of S. frugiperda in Punjab, Pakistan, a study was planned to investigate resistance to insecticides from different classes in field strains of S. frugiperda to confirm whether the resistance was indeed evolving. Here, we explored resistance to spinetoram, emamectin benzoate, indoxacarb, diflubenzuron, methoxyfenozide, chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin in seven field strains and compared them with a laboratory susceptible reference (Lab-SF) strain of S. frugiperda. Compared with the Lab-SF strain at the LC50 levels, the field strains exhibited 24.8–142.7 (spinetoram), 33.4–91.4 (emamectin benzoate), 30.1–90.6 (indoxacarb), 16.1–38.4 (diflubenzuron), 18.4–51.8 (methoxyfenozide), 37.1–222.9 (chlorpyrifos), and 61.9–540.6 (cypermethrin) fold resistance ratios (RRs). In the presence of detoxification enzyme inhibitors [piperonyl butoxide (PBO) and S,S,S-tributyl phosphorotrithioate (DEF)], the toxicity of all the insecticides, with the exception of spinetoram, was significantly enhanced in the tested field strains of S. frugiperda, providing insight into the metabolic mechanism of resistance. Additionally, compared with the Lab-SF strain, the resistant field strains exhibited elevated activities of detoxification enzymes such as glutathione S-transferases (GST), carboxylesterases (CarE) and mixed-function oxidases (MFO). Overall, the findings of the present study provide robust evidence of field-evolved resistance to insecticides in S. frugiperda, which needs to be managed to minimize yield losses of different crops caused by this global pest.

The association between chronic underlying diseases and the clinical characteristics in adult patients infected with Omicron BA.1.

Vancomycin, a glycopeptide antibiotic, serves as the last-resort treatment for infections caused by methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE), and Clostridium difficile. However, the emergence of various vancomycin-resistant bacterial strains worldwide poses a significant challenge to clinical therapy. Adopting the "One Health" concept, we mainly present the prevalence of vancomycin-resistant bacteria over the past decade from 40 human, animal, environmental, and food sources across various regions, both domestically and internationally. The statistical results indicate that vancomycin-resistant bacteria are primarily concentrated in hospitals and their surrounding environments. The prevalence of resistant bacteria in hospital wastewater in South Africa reaches as high as 96.77%, followed by Pakistan and China's Taiwan region, where the resistance rates are 56.5% and 29.02%, respectively. The vancomycin average resistance rate in domestic human-source bacteria (1.41%) is overall higher than that in international human-source bacteria (0.47%). The prevalence of resistant bacteria in pediatric patients across various regions is relatively low (<1%). It is worth noting that although the use of vancomycin is prohibited in livestock farming, vancomycin- resistant bacteria can still be detected in livestock, related products and environment, posing a potential threat to human health. Based on the statistical analysis results, we summarize several common vancomycin resistance mechanisms and the transmission mechanisms, and clarify the differences in the prevalence of resistant bacteria across the "human-animal-food-environment" interface for further analyzing the distribution and transmission risks of vancomycin-resistant bacteria in different hosts worldwide. This review can also provide references for the prevention and control of antimicrobial resistance.

IntroductionEscherichia coli Nissle 1917 (EcN) is one of the most extensively studied nonpathogenic Gram-negative probiotic strains worldwide. Recent research has highlighted the ability of EcN outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) to enhance the phagocytosis and proliferation of RAW264.7 macrophages. However, the impact of EcN-OMVs on M1/M2 polarization and metabolic modulation remains unknown.MethodsIn this study, we evaluated the metabolic effects of EcN-OMVs on RAW264.7 macrophage polarization using metabolomic, transcriptomic, and fluxomic approaches.ReusltsWe found that the RAW264.7 macrophages phagocytosed EcN-OMVs, triggering upregulation of the HIF-1, mTORC1, and NF-κB signaling pathways. This metabolic reprogramming enhanced glycolysis, suppressed the TCA cycle, elevated intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, ATP, and nitric oxide (NO) production, and promoted macrophage proliferation, migration, invasion, and M1-type polarization.DiscussionIn summary, this research establishes a theoretical foundation for utilizing probiotic OMVs in immunomodulatory therapeutic applications.

Typhoid fever remains a global health concern, especially in areas lacking sanitation and clean water. The rise of drug-resistant strains complicates treatment, increasing illness, death, and healthcare expenses. Travel facilitates the spread of these strains worldwide. Multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) strains, including those resistant to first-line antibiotics and fluoroquinolones, pose significant challenges. Azithromycin and third-generation cephalosporins are now preferred treatments. Recently, XDR typhoid emerged in Pakistan, resistant even to third-generation cephalosporins. India also faces challenges, with sporadic cases initially declining but now re-emerging. New strains in India show resistance to third-generation cephalosporins due to plasmid acquisition from other bacteria, particularly blaCTX-M-carrying IncFIB(K). Due to the ongoing nature of this outbreak, the data from this study deserve further consideration in order to control its spread in India.

Nowadays, treating serious infections caused by multi-drug resistant Gram-negative bacteria is best left to the antiquated medication "colistin.". There have been reports of colistin-resistant (Col-R) and heteroresistant (hR) MDR and XDR-GNB strains worldwide. Therefore, we aimed to ascertain the rate of colistin resistance, certain potential resistance mechanisms, and heteroresistance in colistin-susceptible (Col-S) clinical isolates. Identification and Antibiotic susceptibility test (AST) for all isolates were determined by Vitek-2 automated system. The Col-S strains were evaluated for heteroresistance using the population analysis profiling (PAP) method, while the Col-R strains were tested for mcr-1 gene activity by combined disk test (CDT) and colistin minimum inhibitory concentration reduction (CMR) test. The efflux pump mechanism was identified using cyanide 3-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP). Out of 60 isolates enrolled in the study, AST revealed that 60% were MDR-GNB and 40% were XDR-GNB. Ten isolates were colistin resistant (16.6%). The mcr-1 gene was detected in five (5/10) Col-R isolates by PCR. CDT test detected mcr-1 gene activity in four (4/5) of mcr-1 gene positive isolates, while CMR test detected all. Efflux pump inhibition by CCCP showed a reduction of MICs by ≥ 8-folds in four Coli-R isolates. The frequency of carbapenem resistance (CR) within Col-hR strains was 75%, while ESBL was 25%. The alarmingly high occurrence of colistin resistance and heteroresistance in hospital care settings is of major concern and necessitates a reassessment of recommended AST methods since it can result in colistin therapy failure.

Babesia bigemina is one of the most important etiological agents of bovine babesiosis, a tick-borne disease posing a major threat in the livestock industry globally, including South Africa. Despite the huge economic impact of cattle babesiosis in South Africa, antigenic variation observed among B. bigemina strains worldwide has impeded the successful development of a single vaccine with the potential to eliminate the disease. As such, there is still a dearth of information regarding the conservation of B. bigemina genes encoding functionally important proteins that play a crucial role during the invasion of bovine erythrocytes by merozoites. Fifty blood samples previously collected from cattle in eight provinces of South Africa were genetically tested for the presence of B. bigemina DNA fragments using four nested PCR-based assays. The genes targeted coded for SpeI-AvaI restriction fragment, rhoptry-associated protein 1 (BgRAP-1), apical membrane antigen 1 (BgAMA-1) and β-tubulin (BgβTUB). PCR-generated fragments of randomly selected samples were sequenced. BLAST searches in GenBank were performed with newly determined sequences to search for homologous sequences. Neighbor-joining phylogenies were inferred from aligned, contiguous sequences of BgRAP-1, BgAMA-1 and BgβTUB genes. Nested PCR assays generated single fragments of 170 bp, 472 bp, 765 bp and 302 bp for SpeI-AvaI, BgRAP-1, BgAMA-1 and BgβTUB fragments, respectively. Of the 50 bovine samples tested by nested PCR, 82% (42/50; 95% CI = 69.2-90.2%), 68% (34/50; 95% CI = 54.2-79.2%), 50% (25/50; 95% CI = 36.6-63.4%) and 46% (23/50; 95% CI = 33.0-59.6%) possessed B. bigemina-specific SpeI-AvaI, BgRAP-1, BgAMA-1 and BgβTUB DNA fragments, respectively. The BgRAP-1, BgAMA-1 and BgβTUB sequences of South African B. bigemina isolates shared 98-100% similarity with previously reported sequences of strains originating from cattle in countries other than South Africa. The high genetic conservation observed among geographical isolates of B. bigemina suggests the conserved functional role of BgRAP-1 and BgAMA-1 proteins as potential candidates that could be incorporated in recombinant subunit vaccines.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative agent of COVID-19, continually undergoes mutation, leading to variants with altered pathogenicity and transmissibility. The Omicron variant (B.1.1.529), first identified in South Africa in 2021, has become the dominant strain worldwide. It harbors approximately 50 mutations compared to the original strain, with 15 located in the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the spike protein that facilitates viral entry via binding to the human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor. How do these mutated residues modulate the intermolecular interactions and binding affinity between the RBD and ACE2? This is a question of great theoretical importance and practical implication. In this study, we employed quantum chemical calculations at the B2PLYP-D3/def2-TZVP level of theory to investigate the molecular determinants governing Omicron’s ACE2 interaction. Comparative analysis of the Omicron and wild-type RBD–ACE2 interfaces revealed that mutations including S477N, Q493R, Q498R, and N501Y enhance binding through the formation of bifurcated hydrogen bonds, π–π stacking, and cation–π interactions. These favorable interactions counterbalance such destabilizing mutations as K417N, G446S, G496S, and Y505H, which disrupt salt bridges and hydrogen bonds. Additionally, allosteric effects improve the contributions of non-mutated residues (notably A475, Y453, and F486) via structural realignment and novel hydrogen bonding with ACE2 residues such as S19, leading to an overall increase in the electrostatic and π-system interaction energy. In conclusion, our findings provide a mechanistic basis for Omicron’s increased infectivity and offer valuable insights for the development of targeted antiviral therapies. Moreover, from a methodological perspective, we directly calculated mutation-induced binding energy changes at the residue level using advanced quantum chemical methods rather than relying on the indirect decomposition schemes typical of molecular dynamics-based free energy analyses. The strong correlation between calculated energy differences and experimental deep mutational scanning (DMS) data underscores the robustness of the theoretical framework in predicting the effects of RBD mutations on ACE2 binding affinity. This demonstrates the potential of quantum chemical methods as predictive tools for studying mutation-induced changes in protein–protein interactions and guiding rational therapeutic design.

Background: Since 2019, with the spread of coronavirus and the emergence of new strains worldwide, various studies have identified the effects of this virus on multiple organs of the body. Objective: Individuals with COVID-19 experience various symptoms in their body systems. Some of these symptoms can affect the visual system and lead to blurry vision, dry eyes, foreign body sensations, tearing, etc. These symptoms can cause early eye fatigue and re-duce the quality of academic and occupational performance. Method: This study aimed to investigate the ocular symptoms and treatments in outpatients with mild to moderate COVID-19 at the Vali-e-asr Clinic in Hamadan City. The study was cross-sectional with the ethics code IR.UMSHA.REC.1401.913, and was conducted from April, 2021, until the required sample size was achieved. Patients were selected using an available non-probability sampling method. Results: The findings indicated that the pandemic had a significant impact on the employ-ment status of individuals, particularly full-time and part-time employees or workers, as well as university students. Additionally, in our study, significant increases in various eye symptoms, including blurred vision, fluctuating vision, the need to increase text size while reading, and eye irritation, were reported. Conclusion: Based on our study on the impact of COVID-19 on dry eye, we found a sig-nificant increase in dry eye symptoms among patients with a history of COVID-19. It is essential to raise awareness among individuals, healthcare professionals, and policymakers about the possible consequences of the pandemic on eye health and to implement appropri-ate measures to mitigate these effects.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) sequence type (ST) 45 is a major global MRSA lineage with huge strain diversity and a high clinical impact. In Hainan and Guangzhou of China, the ST45-MRSA was mainly associated with t116. The MRSA strain SA2107 was isolated from the sputum of a 5-year-old child with pneumonia. The whole genome of SA2107 was sequence using Illumina (Novaseq 6000) and PacBio (Sequel IIe) sequencers, and the sequences were assembled using hybrid assembly. The carriage of antibiotic resistance genes, virulence genes, and mobile genetic elements were identified using bioinformatics tools. The comparative genomic analyses of MRSA strain SA2107 with other MRSA strains worldwide were performed. The genome size of ST45-SCCmec IVa (2B)-t116 MRSA strain SA2107 was ~2.9 Mb. Mobile genetic elements analysis of SA2107 revealed two plasmids (30,064-bp pSA2107-1 and 8,033-bp pSA2107-2), three prophages, two integrative and conjugative elements (ICEs), and two insertion sequences (ISs, IS431 and IS1272). The SCCmec IVa (2B) carried by SA2107 contained the class B mec gene complex (IS431-mecA-ΔmecR1-IS1272) and type 2 ccr gene complex (ccrA2 and ccrB2). Besides mecA, another beta-lactam resistance gene blaZ was found to located on six copies of bla complex (blaZ, blaR1, and blaI) on the chromosome of SA2107. Three kinds of virulence factors were detected on the chromosome of SA2107, including genes encoding toxins, exoenzyme, and immune-modulating protein. Notably, the three prophages harbored by the chromosome of SA2107 all carried virulence genes. Thus far, only three complete genomes available for ST45-SCCmec IVa (2B)-t116 strain from United States, Germany, and Australia, respectively. The strain SA2107 was the first complete genome data (CP104559) from China for ST45-SCCmec IVa (2B)-t116 MRSA.

Antibiotic resistance of microorganisms is the most pressing global health problem due to the ever-increasing number of deaths caused by ineffective antibiotic therapy. The COVID-19 pandemic has only exacerbated pre-existing issue of increasing resistance of bacterial strains worldwide. Lack of public awareness about proper use of antibiotics directly impacts on uncontrolled antibiotic administration associated with weak antibiotic dispensing controls as well as limited access to health facilities in low- and middle-income countries. It is reported that 68.9% of COVID-19 patients used antibiotics for prophylaxis against bacterial complications or to treat coronavirus infection (mainly azithromycin and ceftriaxone) before hospitalization, with a self-medication rate of 33.0%. The most antibiotic-resistant and dangerous to global public health group of microorganisms is known as ESKAPE: Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter species. The proportion of resistant strains among these microorganisms can reach 95%. In light of the rapid increase in the number of infections caused by antibiotic-resistant strains, a need to create new antibacterial drugs is the most urgent task. The development of new antibiotics is a high-cost goal and it’s often ineffective. Therefore, more and more often their developers resort to the use of antibiotics combinations or using them together with adjuvants of different mechanisms of action. In recent years, special devices and coatings with nanoparticles of various metals deposited on their surface have become increasingly widespread. Some successes achieved in the use of antimicrobial peptides have been leveled by the loss of activity in the human body and their high production cost. In this regard, the use of bacteriophages, especially in combination with antibiotics, has been becoming a promising approach. The observed synergism both in vitro and in vivo experiments allow to hope for certain successes in the fight against ESKAPE group multidrug-resistant pathogens.

The highest ecosystems on Earth are located in India's Himalayan region, covering a distance of 3500 km from Jammu and Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh in the northeastern part of the country. Limited information on the probiotic diversity within the traditional diets of the Western Himalaya is available. Despite living in the challenging environment of high altitudes, the inhabitants of these areas display healthy and long lifespans, which are primarily attributed to their diet, particularly the traditional fermented foods. The potential for isolating native probiotic bacteria from traditional foods is, therefore, enormous. One of the main strategies for preventative treatment in humans may be to supplement the diet with nutrients that can shield against immune system problems and lower the risk of contracting illnesses like mycosis. The emergence of functional foods and nutraceuticals underscores the importance of reducing reliance on medications and increasing regular consumption of fermented foods. Researchers primarily suggest probiotics and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as nutraceuticals due to their non-harmful effects on human health, their ability to activate the immune system, and their ability to enhance resistance to various illness situations. As per WHO, probiotic bacteria are defined as “live microorganisms that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host.” Antifungal agents like azoles and amphotericin B are recommended as therapeutic agents as per the case. However, the emergence of drug-resistant strains worldwide has reduced the efficacy of these treatments. According to health organizations (national and international, including WHO), there is an urgent need to explore novel and alternative options, including probiotics. The current review highlights the biotherapeutic perspective of diverse probiotic strains, including next-generation probiotics against mycosis.