Brazilian stingless bee honeys: physicochemical, bioactive and aromatic diversity.

Communication allows social bees to transform individual experiences into colony-level action, but anthropogenic global change is altering the sensory, physiological, and ecological conditions under which these systems evolved. I argue that climate warming, artificial light at night, anthropogenic vibration, odor pollution, pesticides, pathogens, nutritional simplification, and invasive predators should be understood not merely as parallel stressors, but as forces that reshape the production, transmission, and value of socially shared information. Three themes organize this review. First, global change can directly disrupt communication or alter the payoffs of using socially shared information. Second, communication itself can be plastic, and that plasticity may buffer some forms of change. Third, comparison among honey bees, stingless bees, and bumble bees reveals that not all social information systems will be equally vulnerable to the same stressor. Recent work on the waggle dance is especially revealing: recruits infer source location rather than merely replaying a vector, successful recruitment depends on both landscape structure and individual calibration, and the value of dance information varies among environments. These advances make it possible to move beyond asking whether global change harms bees, to asking how it reorganizes colony information flow. I suggest that this shift in focus clarifies existing challenges, reveals new links among neurobiology, behavior, ecology, and evolution, and highlights the need to protect not only pollinators, but also the communication systems that shape the lives of social bees.

Pollinator-crop interactions are crucial for yield. Brown mustard is widely grown as an oilseed crop, yet declining pollinator populations can lead to pollination deficits and reduced yields. Although some studies have reported mustard flower visitors, details of plant-pollinator interactions and the effectiveness of bee management practices remain poorly understood. We aimed to uncover the dynamics of the flower resource, pollination ecology, and the potential for yield increases by stingless bees. We measured floral resources, conducted field surveys, and implemented five pollination treatments: open pollination, pollinator exclusion, and managed stingless bee treatments in open fields, netted fields, and greenhouse conditions. Mustard flowers opened throughout the daytime and peaked between 8.00 and 10.00h. The availability of floral resources (nectar/spike and pollen/spike) remained higher from 8.00 to 12.00h, and during this time, the abundance, richness, and diversity of flower visitors were also higher. Diverse insect groups pollinated mustard flowers, and effective native pollinators (based on the pollination service index values) were Apis cerana, Apis florea, Ceratina binghami, Lasioglossum cavernifrons, and Tetragonula pagdeni. Pollination modes remained diverse, as sternotribic, noto-sternotribic, and appendage-mediated. The installation of Indian stingless bees in mustard fields optimised yields, and the open field installation practice remained superior (seed yield: 1311.66 ± 88.12kg/ha) to caged practices (netted fields: 856.23 ± 68.23kg/ha and greenhouse fields: 901.86 ± 74.15kg/ha). Based on these findings, it is suggested that farmers utilise supplementary stingless bees in mustard cultivation (via open field application) to enhance sustainable agricultural outputs.

Stingless bee honeys are drawing increasing attention as ingredients for functional foods and health-oriented products because of their distinctive sensory characteristics and bioactive potential. In this study, honeys collected from nine stingless bee species reared in West Sumatra, Indonesia, were comprehensively characterized using physicochemical indices, antioxidant assays [DPPH (i.e. 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and ferric reducing antioxidant power], microbiological screening, volatile profiling [gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS)] and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) fingerprinting. Marked between-sample variability was observed across key quality attributes, including pH (2.80-3.68), Brix (49.83-61.25), viscosity (23.36-175.22 cP) and color parameters. FTIR spectra were consistent with carbohydrate-rich matrices and exhibited carbonyl-related bands. GC-MS profiling identified linalool oxide isomers and junenol among the predominant volatiles. To the best of our knowledge, junenol has not previously been reported in stingless bee honey and may represent a potential regional chemical marker for Indonesian stingless bee honeys. Lactic acid bacteria were detected in selected samples, whereas yeast and mold were not detected. Antioxidant activities were comparatively low, which may reflect local environmental and ecosystem-related factors. The results provide a multi-parameter baseline for stingless bee honeys produced within a shared ecosystem in West Sumatra and demonstrate the value of integrating conventional chemical indices with FTIR and volatile fingerprints for quality assessment. This combined approach may also support future authentication and origin-tracing frameworks for Indonesian stingless bee honeys. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.

ABSTRACTSocial insects represent a major component of tropical forest biomass, yet the ecological fate of their necromass remains poorly understood. Stingless bees (Apidae: Meliponini), particularly species in the genus Trigona, frequently engage in aggressive, sometimes lethal conflicts while competing for nutrient‐rich resources such as carrion. Here we report a previously undescribed trophic interaction in which rove beetles of the species Macrogerodonia peruviana (Staphylinidae) prey exclusively on wounded or recently killed Trigona workers. Field observations and cafeteria choice experiments showed that beetles consistently preyed on injured Trigona spp. bees, ignoring carrion and alternative invertebrates, including flies, grasshoppers, and other stingless bee genera. This behavior was observed at different sites in Peru and Costa Rica, suggesting this interaction is geographically widespread. Our observations indicate a previously undescribed, highly specialized trophic interaction linking social insect warfare to predator specialization, emphasizing the ecological significance of social insect necromass in structuring tropical forest food webs.

The Plebeia group, including Plebeia, Lestrimelitta, and Friesella, requires clearer taxonomic resolution. Plebeia is the polyphyletic: species in clade II are more closely related to Friesella and Lestrimelitta than to their congeners in clade I, which are more restricted to the Amazon biome, and Central and North America. Molecular cytogenetic studies in Meliponini have shown the important role of heterochromatin in karyotypic evolution and species diversification. In this study, we compared heterochromatic repetitive sequences in the Plebeia group to better understand its evolutionary patterns and diversification. For this, we hybridized a probe of highly and moderately repetitive DNA from the Friesella schrottkyi genome (here called FSch-C0t probe) onto the chromosomes of F. schrottkyi, Lestrimelitta limao, and some Plebeia species from clade II to investigate whether repetitive sequences constituting heterochromatin are shared among species. Additionally, we mapped the microsatellite (GA)n in four Plebeia species from clade II as a control experiment, as it typically shows general euchromatic hybridization patterns in stingless bees. The FSch-C0t probe labeled all heterochromatin in F. schrottkyi and was restricted to the centromeric heterochromatin in analyzed Plebeia species from clade II, indicating the sharing of repetitive sequences in part of the heterochromatin between these two genera. However, the FSch-C0t did not yield signals in the AT-rich regions of L. limao, which likely correspond to heterochromatin, suggesting a variation in the heterochromatic composition compared to that of F. schrottkyi and analyzed Plebeia species from clade II. In addition, FSch-C0t signals were detected in some terminal regions of the chromosomes in Plebeia spp. and L. limao, potentially corresponding to telomeric sequences. Microsatellite (GA)n was located on one of the chromosomal arms in the euchromatic regions of the four Plebeia taxa, following a trend reported for other Meliponini. Our data reveal a dynamic evolution of heterochromatic composition in the Plebeia group, with hypotheses regarding its diversification discussed in light of available phylogenies.

This study explored optimal extraction conditions, bioactivities, and phytochemical profiles of stingless bee (Tetragonula pagdeni Schwarz) propolis using LC-QTOF MS. The best extraction was achieved using 75% ethanol, a 30 mL/g solvent-to-propolis ratio, and a 50-minute extraction time. Maceration for 7 days without dewaxing yielded the highest total phenolic (59.1 ± 6.4 µg GAE/mg) and flavonoid (13.6 ± 0.6 µg catechin/mg) contents. A total of 60 compounds were tentatively identified. The extract exhibited antimicrobial activity against S. pyogenes, and exhibits antioxidant activity, with IC50 values of 41.9 ± 6.3 µg/mL (DPPH•) and 22.6 ± 0.3% at 1.0 mg/mL (ABTS•+). It also showed potent anti-inflammatory activity (IC50 = 19.1 ± 1.00 µg/mL) without cytotoxicity towards RAW 264.7 cells. These findings highlight the potential of stingless bee propolis as a natural source of bioactive compounds for future commercial applications.

Mancozeb exposure induces subtle gut microbiota changes and affects midgut integrity in Brazilian stingless bees Scaptotrigona aff. postica and Tetragonisca angustula.

Stingless bee propolis is a promising source of cytoprotective metabolites. However, its chemical and biological properties, as well as its ability to modulate the nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (NRF2) pathway, a key regulator of antioxidant response element (ARE)-driven cytoprotective gene expression, have not been adequately characterised. Compounds (1–9) were isolated from Vietnamese stingless bee propolis and identified as three xanthones and six sesquiterpenes by NMR and HR-ESI-MS analyses. Xanthone 2 and sesquiterpenes 4–9 are reported for the first time from propolis. Real-time bioluminescence monitoring using the human hepatoblastoma HepG2 reporter cell line stably expressing dual-color luciferases revealed that the ethanolic extracts dose-dependently induced NRF2 activation. Compounds 4 and 5 exhibited comparable NRF2 activation without apparent cytotoxicity. Vietnamese Homotrigona apicalis propolis is a viable source of sesquiterpenes with moderate NRF2 activation potential.

The complete mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes) of two ecologically important stingless bees, Tetragonula gressitti (Sakagami) and T. laeviceps (Smith), were sequenced and analyzed. Both species display the typical insect mitogenome structures but exhibit species-specific structural rearrangements and sequence variation. Their mitogenomes are AT-rich (81.5% and 75.2%, respectively), significantly influencing codon usage patterns. We identified novel features in tRNA and rRNA secondary structures, and observed gene rearrangements that exceed the typical conservatism in Hymenoptera, likely reflecting adaptation to distinct ecological pressures. Phylogenomic analyses robustly place both species within a monophyletic Meliponini clade, distinct from other Apoidea (Apis and Bombus), supporting their current taxonomic placement. These mitogenomes provide valuable resources for Meliponini phylogenetics and may inform conservation and utilization strategies for these species.

Indoxacarb is an oxadiazine insecticide widely used in agriculture to control lepidopteran larvae. Although it is often regarded as a selective, reduced-risk compound with limited effects on non-target arthropods, its potential impact on bees, especially native species, remains poorly understood. In this study, we evaluated the acute toxicity and locomotor effects of indoxacarb in two stingless bee species, Melipona beecheii and Nannotrigona perilampoides (Hymenoptera: Meliponini). Under laboratory conditions, bees were exposed for 48h to sucrose solution containing the field-recommended concentration of indoxacarb (75mg L-1), its tenfold (7.5mg L-1) and 100-fold (0.75mg L-1) dilutions, or an insecticide-free control. Survival, mean survival time, hazard ratios (HR), and walking speed were assessed. At the field-recommended concentration, both species reached 0% survival, within 12h in M. beecheii and 48h in N. perilampoides. Mean survival time was 11.7h and 42.4h, and the HR was 335.21 and 36.62, respectively. At the tenfold and 100-fold dilutions, survival in M. beecheii declined to 23.3% and 53.3% after 48h, whereas N. perilampoides declined to 73.3% with both dilutions. Exposure to indoxacarb also affected locomotor performance. In M. beecheii, walking speed decreased after 6h of exposure, with the significant reduction at the field-recommended concentration, while the lowest concentration did not differ from the control. In N. perilampoides, this effect occurred only at the field-recommended rate after 10h. Overall, our findings show that indoxacarb poses lethal and sublethal risks to Neotropical stingless bees, with M. beecheii exhibiting greater susceptibility than N. perilampoides.

Intensive agriculture and urbanization have led to habitat degradation and fragmentation, reducing plant diversity and subsequently reducing pollinator abundance and richness. This paper investigates the conservation potential of green infrastructure in allotment gardens, which are a common form of urban land use. This exploratory study examines allotment plant species richness by functional use groups in allotment gardens across Berlin, as well as its impact on ecosystem services, such as providing pollinator habitats through multifunctional plants that are edible, ornamental, and nectar-producing. Additionally, we highlight the potential role of allotment gardens in providing citizens with locally produced food by evaluating the plant species richness of food plants in these gardens. The study was conducted in allotment gardens in Berlin between Мау and July 2019 and focused on comparative analyzes of plots with high (5) and medium (4) management intensity, while the single low-intensity plot was included only to assess overall biodiversity across all studied garden plots (10). Plant species were identified and classified into functional groups, including edible species, ornamental species, weed species also used as ornamentals, and edible species also used as ornamentals or medicinal plants, as well as into life forms such as herbs, trees, shrubs, and vines. Management intensity was assessed through field observations and by verifying the frequency of lawn mowing and hedge trimming with gardeners. During the study, 376 plant species were identified, 17 of which were included in the list of recommended native plant species for Berlin, while 14 were invasive species. The Wilcoxon rank-sum test showed that native species richness (p = 0.05), weedy plant species richness (p = 0.03), and the richness of species contributing to regulation and maintenance ecosystem services (ReMES) (p = 0.03) were significantly negatively correlated with the intensity of garden management. Our results show that urban allotments can support pollinator populations thanks to the wide variety of nectar-producing plants. However, this capacity is greatly affected by how the gardener manages their plot locally. Over half of the identified plants are multifunctional: they are ornamental, providing aesthetic and mental well-being benefits; they are useful, providing food and medicinal purposes; and they are melliferous, providing nectar and pollen for bees and other insects. Our results clearly show that urban allotments can support pollinator populations due to the high richness of melliferous plants, thereby enhancing the ecosystem services produced in and by gardens that contribute to the physical and mental wellbeing of both gardeners and visitors. We also discuss how this capacity is strongly influenced by local plot management and the gardener's knowledge.

Species-specific responses of bees to Flupyradifurone: Enzymatic stress biomarkers reveal higher sensitivity in Neotropical larvae compared to Apis mellifera.

The use of pesticides in agriculture boosts food production yields. However, pesticides are directly linked to declining pollinator populations, consequently impacting crop productivity. Assessing the effects of pesticides on pollinating bees is crucial for informing crop management strategies and public policies. This manuscript provides a dataset from the study that evaluated the toxicity of the active ingredients λ-cyhalothrin (insecticide) and fenpyroximate (acaricide) on the stingless bee species Nannotrigona testaceicornis (Apidae: Meliponini). The results include measurements of bee's weight, survival, ingestion rates, behavioural responses, and the bee behavioural stress index (BSI). This dataset can be further used for ecological risk assessments, determination of risk factors and quotients, and developing behavioural indices, models, and clustering analyses. Policymakers can use this dataset to support their decision-making processes.

Two systems of nanoemulsions encapsulating hexyl gallate-eugenol (GaOi) were developed for sustainable plant protection. A water-based system (GaOi-Water, F24) and a 1 % (w/v) chitosan-stabilized system (GaOi-Qs, F64) were prepared using high-energy emulsification and analyzed using DLS, AFM, and TEM. F24 displayed narrowly distributed spherical droplets (AFM: 40–150 nm; DLS mean ∼140 nm; PDI <0.3), whereas F64 formed a chitosan-encapsulated core–shell network with larger aggregates (>400 nm) embedding smaller nanodomains (20–50 nm), consistent with a polymeric shell that may confer sustained-release kinetics. Transmission electron microscopy corroborated these architectures, showing well-defined core-shell morphologies that correlated with the sustained release behavior of F64. In addition, F64 exhibited high encapsulation efficiency and pronounced colloidal stability (|ζ| > 50 mV). Functionally, microbroth (REMA) assays showed that F64 was an order of magnitude more potent than F24 (IC₉₀/MBC: 0.03125 %, 0.125 % v/v), an effect attributed to the potential disruption of the membrane by possible synergistic interaction and the prolonged availability of the antifungal on the surface. Crucially, acute ecotoxicity tests on two stingless bee species ( Melipona scutellaris and Scaptotrigona postica ) revealed no mortality or feeding impairment at active doses. Greenhouse trials on sweet orange demonstrated lesion reductions comparable to commercial copper sprays, using markedly lower active loads. Thus, the results link nano-architecture to release behavior and biological outcomes, illustrating a materials-driven pathway for high-efficacy, pollinator-safe crop protection. The GaOi-chitosan system represents a scalable and environmentally sound alternative to metal-based bactericides with strong potential for field translation. • Sustainable chitosan nanoemulsions to replace conventional agrochemicals. • Hexyl gallate-eugenol showed greater antimicrobial potency against X. citri . • Core-shell structures ensure prolonged release of the active ingredient. • No significant toxicity to native bees tested with nanoemulsions. • Effective control of citrus canker in greenhouse tests.

The role of the sex determination cascade in the development of caste polyphenisms.

Stingless bees (Meliponini) play a crucial role in tropical and subtropical ecosystems as pollinators. They collect plant resins to construct and defend their nests. This study investigates the chemical composition of propolis from Geniotrigona thoracica Smith in Sumatra, Indonesia, using GC-MS analysis of silylated alcohol extracts. While most samples contained markers of Mangifera indica, propolis from Karo Regency exhibited a distinct profile dominated by diterpenic acids characteristic of Pinus merkusii Jungh. & de Vriese. Further analysis confirmed that P. merkusii resin serves as a source for stingless bee propolis, highlighting its potential significance in meliponiculture. These findings expand our understanding of stingless bee foraging behavior and emphasize the commercial and pharmacological value of P. merkusii resin.

This study evaluates the influence of harvesting methods and seasonal variability on the physicochemical and antioxidant properties of Tetragonisca fiebrigi honey produced in the tropical dry forest of Bolivia. Despite the growing interest in stingless bee honey, studies addressing the combined effects of seasonality and collection practices in this region remain scarce. Honey samples were collected during winter and spring using three approaches: conventional, optimized (based on good manufacturing practices), and direct racking from natural nests. Physicochemical parameters (pH 4.60–6.15; moisture 28–34%; water activity 0.69–0.75) and sugar composition (glucose 10.60–29.03 g/100 g; fructose 9.01–21.97 g/100 g; sucrose 0.70–3.23 g/100 g) showed variability primarily associated with season rather than harvesting method. Bioactive compounds exhibited a marked seasonal effect, with higher total phenolic content (up to 11.03 mg GAE/100 g), flavonoids (up to 23.08 mg QE/100 g), and antioxidant capacity (DPPH up to 1.33 mol TE/100 g; ORAC up to 25.93 mol TE/100 g) in spring samples. Multivariate analysis (PCA) revealed that honey variability is structured along bioactive and physicochemical axes, with samples obtained using the optimized method showing reduced dispersion and greater compositional consistency. These results indicate that while seasonality governs the compositional and functional properties of T. fiebrigi honey, improved harvesting practices contribute to reducing variability and enhancing product standardization. This study provides one of the first comprehensive datasets on Bolivian stingless bee honey and highlights its potential as a functional food, supporting the development of species-specific quality criteria and sustainable meliponiculture in tropical dry forest ecosystems.

Chimpanzee behavior, including tool use, varies widely among communities and populations. Tools made by chimpanzees for extracting products from the underground nests of stingless bees are among the most complex used by the species. They have rarely been described in East Africa and have never been observed in three chimpanzee communities in the Kibale National Park, Uganda-two at Ngogo and one at Kanyawara community-that have been studied for over 30 years. In the current study, we present the results of a 15-year study of a fourth community of chimpanzees ranging at Sebitoli, in the northern part of Kibale, and the insects they consume. We identified the stingless bees and carpenter bee species on which they feed. In addition, we collected the tools used by the Sebitoli chimpanzees. Of the 443 tools used in 152 episodes to extract products from insect nests, 332 were used by chimpanzees to explore or exploit underground or arboreal nests of Meliponula sp.. In addition, individuals sometimes left sticks vertically inserted into the entrances of underground bee nests. We discuss the implications for the transmission of the tool use behavior for subterranean extractive task within this social group, given that it appears to be absent in the other three Kibale Forest communities being studied. Our results highlight the importance of taking small-scale cultural variation into account in understanding chimpanzee behavioral repertoires as well as planning and implementing conservation strategies. We dedicate this article to the chimpanzee Hugo, who loved honey the most. He was slaughtered with machetes by poachers on April 3, 2026.

The present study is devoted to the investigation of morphological characteristics of pollen grains of several fruit plants belonging to the family Rosaceae. Plants of this family bloom in early spring and represent an important source of nectar and pollen for honey bees, thereby playing a significant role in apiculture and in the development of bee colonies. At the same time, pollen is one of the main factors influencing the chemical composition and quality indicators of bee products. The aim of the study was to investigate the palynomorphological characteristics of pollen grains of several fruit plants belonging to the Rosaceae family distributed in the flora of the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic, to evaluate their taxonomic significance, and to expand existing scientific knowledge. The research material consisted of pollen obtained from cultivated plants grown in the region. Four species that bloom in early spring and are intensively visited by bees were selected: Amygdalus communis, Cerasus vulgaris, Malus orientalis, and Persica vulgaris. Pollen samples were collected during the mass flowering period in the morning at the stage of newly opened flowers. Morphological analyses were carried out using light microscopy. Samples were observed under a Bresser light microscope at forty-times ocular magnification and documented at a resolution of 2048 by 1536 pixels. The results showed that pollen grains of all studied species were monad-type, radially symmetrical, isopolar, and tricolporate. Differences in pollen morphology among species were also identified. Cerasus species were characterized by sharply triangular pollen shape, wider colpi, and clearly expressed striate ornamentation. Malus orientalis pollen grains showed a more rounded contour, relatively narrow colpi, and weak ornamentation. Amygdalus communis pollen exhibited triangular contour and dense ornamentation. Persica vulgaris pollen demonstrated radial arrangement of apertures, colpi extending toward the poles, and a densely wrinkled exine surface. Thus, the obtained results demonstrate that morphological characteristics of pollen grains play an important role in species differentiation and taxonomic evaluation.