The purpose of this study is to explore how adolescents in self-contained classrooms or schools for students with autism or ADHD, with no prior involvement in criminality, perceive and interpret different forms of early offending behavior through fictional case stories. The study specifically aims to examine their ability to discern what constitutes offending behavior, based on the double empathy problem. In total, 13 participants currently receiving secondary-level education (grades 10–12, aged 16–20 years) in self-contained classes at schools for adolescents with autism or ADHD participated. No student had cognitive disabilities or had been involved in any criminal act or criminal justice issues. The students were individually given three fictional written cases of offending behavior (theft, physical assault, and sexual assault). Audio-recorded stimulated recall interviews were obtained while the students solved tasks in relation to the cases, and these were analyzed to capture whether and what aspects of early offending were discerned. Overall, the results indicated limited awareness and enhanced social vulnerability, risking unwitting engagement in early offending behavior. Adapting social science education to students’ special educational needs to understand social interactions might be used to prevent and enhance their awareness of early offending behavior.

Multi-methods development and validation of a tool for use in measuring serious illness communication competence: Assessment of clinical encounters - Communication tool (ACE-CT).

ABSTRACT This study explores the integration of video-based reflection in pre-service language teacher education as a means to support teacher candidates in developing reflective skills. Adopting a qualitative action research design, two teacher educators from different institutional contexts incorporated video-stimulated reflection into their methodology courses, centred around microteaching tasks. Twelve teacher candidates, working in pairs, recorded their lessons and participated in stimulated recall interviews with their teacher educators. This cycle of teaching and reflection, spanning 3 months, was repeated twice. The findings suggest that video-based reflections can evolve into a dialogic and collaborative space where teacher candidates learn to reflect both on and for action, especially when guided by teacher educators. The study also highlights that solid pedagogical content knowledge and language proficiency are prerequisites for meaningful reflection, and that peer dialogue plays a key role in facilitating teacher learning.

This mixed-methods study investigates the efficacy and learner experience of using an AI-generated, multi-dimensional scaffold during the pre-writing stage of continuation writing tasks for Chinese English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. The quantitative phase employed a between-subjects design (N = 52 undergraduates), comparing an AI Scaffold Group with a No-Scaffold Control Group. Results indicated the scaffold group produced texts with significantly higher holistic quality, fluency, and lexical alignment, though no significant differences were found in grammatical accuracy. The qualitative phase, which is central to this study's purpose of achieving an in-depth understanding, involved stimulated recall interviews and scaffold use logs with a focal sub-sample. A reflexive thematic analysis of this rich qualitative data revealed that learners experienced the scaffold as a tool that: (1) reduced cognitive load by structuring the complex planning process, (2) deepened their comprehension and connection to the source narrative by activating a detailed situation model, and (3) increased confidence and self-efficacy by providing actionable linguistic and structural guidance. The integrated findings substantiate the role of AI-generated scaffolding as a potential instructional tool, demonstrating that its primary benefits are mediated through cognitive and affective pathways that facilitate a more engaged and meaningful interaction with the writing task. This study contributes to the fields of AI in education and L2 writing by delineating not only the outcomes but, more importantly, the lived experience and underlying learner-cognitive processes of AI-assisted planning, thereby highlighting the essential role of interpretive qualitative inquiry in evaluating educational technology.

Despite sustained pedagogical emphasis on communicative competence, oral fluency remains a persistent challenge for EFL learners, particularly in task-based speaking contexts involving time pressure. While previous research has examined the effects of task planning on linguistic performance, less attention has been paid to learners’ psychological experiences during task execution and how these experiences interact with cognitive and linguistic resources over time. This study investigates how three online task planning conditions—pressured online planning (POP), unpressured online planning (UOP), and hybrid online planning (HOP)—shape learners’ use of formulaic sequences (FSs), with a focus on both frequency and variation, as well as their relationship with working memory (WM). Ninety Chinese EFL undergraduates participated in an eight-week longitudinal intervention and completed dialogic narrative tasks at pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test. Quantitative analyses examined changes in FS deployment and exploratory associations with WM capacity. To complement these analyses, stimulated recall interviews were conducted to capture learners’ perceived pressure, emotional responses, and strategic decision-making under different planning conditions. The results reveal condition-sensitive and time-dependent patterns in FS use, with distinct profiles emerging across planning conditions. Interview data suggest that these patterns are closely associated with learners’ psychological regulation under task constraints, particularly their tendency toward risk avoidance, reliance on familiar expressions, and prioritization of fluency under pressure. Together, the findings highlight the importance of integrating psychological perspectives into the interpretation of task-based language performance and offer implications for the design of planning conditions in L2 speaking instruction.

Purpose To explore the participation experiences of adolescents and young adults with Duchenne or Becker muscular dystrophies (DMD/BMD) and their parents across home, education, community, and work settings. Materials and methods A phenomenological approach was applied. Participants were eight dyads (n = 16) of youth with DMD/BMD, aged 15 to 26 (M = 19.9 years, SD = 4.3), and their parents. Dyads participated in individual semi-structured stimulated recall Interviews (SRI), reflecting on the results of the Youth, Young-adult Participation and Environment Measure completed by the youth. A dyadic analysis followed thematic analysis. Results We identified three central themes. A dyadic analysis of these themes yielded six subthemes: (1) Negotiating the Boundaries of Disability and Self- functional limitations and their consequences for participation; disclosing versus concealing the condition; (2) Between Purpose and Enjoyment: Everyday Meanings of Participation- exploring activities and contexts; motivations for engagement; (3) Participation as a Pathway to Adulthood- future opportunities for meaningful participation; social contexts for personal development. Conclusions Findings highlight two interrelated conceptual dimensions: (a) a realistic-pragmatic view of function and participation; (b) participation and self-identity building. Understanding these dimensions may inform participation-focused interventions that support young individuals with DMD/BMD as they navigate the transition to adulthood.

This study investigated the impact of task type and proficiency level on second language learners’ task engagement, combing the discourse analytic method with the idiodynamic method. Sixty undergraduate English-as-a-foreign-language learners in China were divided into high- and low-proficiency groups based on their scores on the Oxford Placement Test. The learners were randomly paired with a partner who shared the same proficiency level and completed a narrative task and a decision-making task. Their spoken discourse of task performance was analyzed to explore behavioral, cognitive, and social engagement. The results of the two tasks were compared using multivariate analyses of variance. Emotional engagement was examined qualitatively through stimulated recall interviews, adopting an idiodynamic approach. The findings revealed that both high- and low-proficiency groups were more behaviorally, cognitively, socially, and emotionally engaged in the decision-making task than in the narrative task. The findings also indicate an interaction effect of task type and proficiency level on learner engagement, as high-proficiency learners produced significantly more words and turns during the decision-making task compared to the narrative task. Emotional engagement exhibited five dynamic patterns, with greater fluctuations in decision-making tasks among high-proficiency learners. The findings of this study suggest that decision-making tasks may be more engaging to second language learners, especially those with higher-proficiency levels.

This study examines how artificial intelligence (AI)-mediated instruction shapes novice language teachers' identity by highlighting both reinforcing and disrupting forces. Seven novice English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers at a private language school participated in a three-phase qualitative design: (a) demographic interviews to contextualize backgrounds and expectations; (b) observations of three lessons per teacher from an 18-session course in which AI tools were implemented; and (c) stimulated-recall interviews anchored to recorded AI episodes. Transcripts from all phases were analyzed through iterative open, axial, and selective coding, with reflexive memoing and member checking to enhance credibility. Findings reveal AI as a double-edged driver of identity. Reinforcing factors included enhanced classroom dynamism and efficiency, increased creativity, boosted self-confidence, and the emergence of a tech-savvy teacher identity. Disrupting factors involved challenged pedagogical knowledge, a perceived lack of AI expertise, limited recognition and appreciation within the institution, and moments of professional authenticity crisis. Overall, AI-mediated episodes prompted oscillations rather than linear change in identity, positioning novices alternately as empowered innovators and uncertain practitioners; targeted AI literacy, mentored experimentation, and recognition structures are recommended to stabilize preferable positions.

This study examined the independent use of ChatGPT by EFL students outside the classroom. It focused on how these Saudi EFL students used ChatGPT for essay writing and grammar learning without prior instruction. The study aimed to answer the following research questions: (1) How do EFL students use ChatGPT for essay writing? (2) How do EFL students incorporate ChatGPT into grammar learning? Eight participants were recruited using snowball sampling from a specific university in Saudi Arabia. Data were collected via semi-structured and stimulated-recall interviews, along with screen recordings of the student’s interactions with ChatGPT, and were analyzed thematically. The findings revealed that Saudi EFL students adopted two distinct approaches to using ChatGPT for essay writing. The first was a comprehensive, process-oriented approach in which students refined their ChatGPT use throughout various stages of the writing process. The second was a product-oriented approach in which students primarily relied on AI-generated essays and utilized the AI Humanizer feature. The findings also identified specific features that students adapted to enhance their grammar learning. The study concludes with pedagogical implications for EFL learning, highlighting the need to assess students’ writing processes, monitor their progress, and instruct them on the ethics of AI use and acceptable applications in academic settings. It provides valuable insights into how EFL students leverage ChatGPT for both essay writing and grammar learning.

Sentence complexity is widely regarded as an indicator of second language proficiency, yet many EFL learners struggle to produce structurally complex sentences despite having adequate grammatical knowledge. This study investigates the role of working memory in shaping EFL learners’ sentence complexity from a psycholinguistic perspective. Rather than treating sentence complexity as a purely linguistic outcome, the study examines it as a product of cognitive capacity during language production. Using a qualitative design, the study involved ten undergraduate EFL learners who completed sentence production tasks followed by stimulated recall interviews. The production data were analyzed to identify patterns of sentence complexity, while the interview data were used to explore learners’ cognitive experiences during sentence construction. The findings reveal that working memory strongly constrains learners’ ability to produce complex sentences. When cognitive load increased, learners consistently simplified sentence structure by reducing clause embedding and sentence length. Learners reported difficulty maintaining multiple linguistic elements simultaneously, particularly when lexical retrieval and grammatical organization competed for limited working memory resources. As a result, learners often prioritized meaning clarity and sentence completion over structural complexity. The study also shows that learners were aware of their working memory limitations and consciously adjusted sentence structure to manage cognitive demands. These findings support resource-limited models of language production and highlight working memory as a key factor influencing syntactic performance in EFL contexts. Pedagogically, the study suggests that expectations of sentence complexity should consider cognitive constraints and task conditions. Recognizing the role of working memory can lead to more realistic instruction, better task design, and fairer assessment of learner proficiency.

Silent pauses are a frequent feature of second language speech, yet they are often interpreted as signs of low fluency. This study examines silent pauses from a psycholinguistic perspective by focusing on their role in second language sentence planning. Using a qualitative design, the study involved ten undergraduate EFL learners and collected data through oral sentence production tasks and stimulated recall interviews. Speech data were recorded and analyzed to identify silent pauses occurring before and during sentence production, while interview data were used to explore learners’ cognitive processes during these pauses. The findings show that silent pauses function as cognitive resources that support conceptual planning, lexical retrieval, and syntactic organization. Learners used silence deliberately to manage cognitive load and maintain accuracy, although these pauses were often perceived negatively due to pressure to speak fluently. The study reinforces staged models of speech production and challenges narrow definitions of fluency by highlighting silence as an integral part of second language processing. Pedagogically, the findings emphasize the importance of providing thinking time to support more accurate and complex language use.

PurposeClinical teachers use both clinical and teaching scripts when supervising students. The aims of the study was: 1) to explore how teaching scripts are operationalized during supervision of clinical reasoning, and 2) to evaluate whether teaching scripts and their activation vary according to clinical teachers’ level of teaching experience.Materials and methodsA purposeful sample of 20 clinical teachers from different disciplines and levels of teaching experiences were invited to conduct a videotaped clinical supervision with a simulated resident involving a patient presenting with subacute lower abdominal pain. The session was followed by a semi-structured and a stimulated recall interview. Both were transcribed and analysed using deductive and inductive approaches.ResultsTeaching scripts were operationalized into four clear supervision styles along two axes: the richness of the pedagogical dimension of teaching scripts and the flexibility of teaching approaches. Participants’ working context, prior clinical experience, teaching training opportunities and reflective skills seemed to determine these teaching styles. However, they did not vary according to the level of teaching experience.ConclusionThe results of this study shed light on how faculty development programs can guide and enhance clinical teachers’ supervision skills based on the analysis of their existing teaching scripts and supervision styles.

ABSTRACT Second language learning motivation (L2) research has a strong nomothetic tradition. However, such research is inherently limited when applied to specific classrooms and/or individual learners. Accordingly, growing attention has been paid to relationships between trait-like and situational aspects of motivation, foregrounding the role of context in research. In recent years, motivation and other learner differences (LDs) have been conceptualized as dynamic, interacting continuously, and manifesting differently at different timescales. Idiodynamics was developed to capture represenations of learners’ in situ motivation(s) (or other LDs) as they fluctuate on a second-to-second basis. Participant(s) are videoed taking part in a learning/communication event. The participant reviews the video and continuously reports changes in their motivational status (idiodynamic ratings) using specialized software. These ratings are then used in a stimulated recall interview, eliciting rationale for changes in the participant’s status. The current article reviews epistemological arguments for using the idiodynamic method as a stand-alone method and alongside existing, nomothetic methods. Idiodynamics has ecological and time validity that encourages researchers to revisit prior L2 motivational theories and findings. We consider six ways in which idiodynamic research may be juxtaposed with – and complement – such work. We describe some of the key empirical idiodynamic findings concerning L2 motivation and related affective variables showing the range, scope, and potential of this research approach. Data analysis and visualization are discussed along with limitations. To promote and facilitate future idiodynamic studies, we finally discuss future directions and innovative adaptations of the approach.

ABSTRACT This study investigates how translanguaging practices emerged and evolved among bilingual preservice English language teachers during a three-month teaching practicum with young emergent bilinguals in Brunei primary schools. Framed within teacher language awareness (TLA), it examines how teachers’ awareness of classroom language use developed organically in a context where teachers and learners share a home language that is central to interaction yet absent from the formal curriculum. Drawing on written reflection journals and selected stimulated recall interviews, the analysis traces shifts in how and why 45 preservice teachers engaged in translanguaging, based on their own reflections regarding whether their practices were planned or reactive to classroom situations. Findings reveal that teachers became increasingly conscious of their language choices, navigating tensions between identities, institutional expectations and learner needs. They gradually shifted from reactive, intuitive responses to more intentional, strategic use of their multilingual repertoires. Five themes emerged from the data: repositioning teacher identity, responding to learner needs, affirming learner identities, negotiating language policy and developing through reflective practice. These themes illustrate the situated and evolving nature of teachers’ language decision-making. The study highlights how preservice teachers begin to develop professional competence in multilingual settings and support learners’ access to academic language.

Studies on teachers’ emotions and identity have progressed from focusing on one-way relationships to exploring reciprocal process among a variety of constructs. Based on the available research, few studies have considered the dynamic relationship between emotions and identity from an integrative approach, particularly among EFL teachers within the context of teaching young learners. Expanding on these previous studies, the current study adopted a case study approach to explore the dynamic process involving urban primary school EFL teachers in Northern China based on the social psychological identity theory (Burke & Stets, 2009) and control-value theory (Pekrun, 2024; Pekrun et al., 2007). Semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, and stimulated recall interviews were conducted. The results highlighted the influence of emotions on identity verification through authority resources and the influence of teachers’ cognitive ability and emotional competence on identity change. Such identity dynamics were found to affect teachers’ emotional experience, emotion regulation, and emotional labor through their appraisal of value and control, as well as their commitment to emotional rules, forming a cyclical process. Practical implications for teachers, administrators, and policymakers were proposed.

Recent empirical research on mathematical creativity using eye-tracking (ET) technology has faced challenges in developing comprehensive overviews due to the diversity of tools, task types, ET metrics, and identification methods. Thus, this systematic review attempts to examine studies that focus on mathematical creativity and incorporate ET technology. Guided by Newman and Gough’s seven-step approach, a Scopus database search covering publications up to 2024 identified five eligible empirical studies collected for this study. The review reveals that researchers employed two primary types of eye trackers: screen-based trackers, which are affordable and unobtrusive, and eye-tracking glasses, which enable participants to engage in paper-and-pencil tasks while moving naturally. To stimulate creative thinking, the studies utilized open-ended mathematical tasks—particularly geometry-based multiple solution tasks (MST) and visual modeling tasks—that encourage divergent exploration. In analyzing creative processes, researchers combined ET metrics such as fixation duration, fixation count, and scan paths with gaze-overlaid videos, offering complementary insights into visual attention patterns and idea development. Additionally, several studies integrated ET with stimulated recall interviews (SRI), allowing participants to reflect on their strategies and deepening the interpretation of cognitive processes. This methodological combination effectively captures both visual behaviors and participants’ reflections, highlighting the complexity of creative thinking in mathematics and offering guidance for future research and instructional practice.

ABSTRACT Learning assistants (LAs) help implement evidence‐based teaching in undergraduate active‐learning courses and support student learning through their facilitation. Here, we present a drivers‐of‐LA‐action model with empirical evidence that connects across the macro level of LA‐supported course design and the micro level of LA‐student interactions to understand how course activity system design drives LA goals, actions, and student in‐the‐moment learning in interactions. Our study is guided by sociocultural theory, specifically: cultural historical activity theory, which helps us understand how different course components work together; and theory on authoritativeness and dialogicity, which helps us understand the centering of one canonical perspective versus multiple student perspectives. Our embedded multiple case study includes narratives of LA facilitation based on recordings of LA‐student interactions from 37 different LAs in 10 chemistry and physics courses and semistructured stimulated recall interviews with professors as main data sources. Our findings show that course design that supports targeting the canon directly versus through scientific knowledge‐building drives LA purposes to be either uni‐ or multi‐directional, LA facilitation to be authoritative or dialogic, and student in‐the‐moment learning to be LA‐ or student‐centered. We discuss the use of the drivers‐of‐LA‐action model in practice for intentional course design that integrates LAs to meet student learning goals.

Classroom interaction is a challenging yet crucial part of language teaching, where teachers play a critical role in successful learning. Teachers' awareness of interaction strategies, such as negotiation of meaning strategies, including when and how to implement them, significantly affects learning outcomes, and reflective practices like stimulated recall interviews (SRIs) can effectively develop their awareness. Thus, the research aims to find out the EFL teachers' negotiation of meaning strategy (NfM) use reflected in stimulated recall interviews (SRIs) and the effect of awareness-raising activity on the negotiation of meaning strategies on teacher's reflections. The research participants are two in-service EFL teachers working at a private university in Türkiye. This research uses a mixed-method explanatory sequential design in a quasi-experimental framework. Teachers completed two SRIs, and between the interviews, they participated in an awareness-raising activity where they were informed about NfM strategies. In the light of qualitative and quantitative analysis, it is revealed that after the awareness-raising activity, the number and the type of NfM strategies increased. Furthermore, it was found that teachers demonstrated initiation in starting reflections and took more deliberate actions in the strategy choices. It could be stressed that teachers' reflections, as in SRIs, serve as a valuable tool for professional development opportunities to think, reflect, and improve their teaching, helping learners' language learning. These findings suggest that such awareness-raising activities positively impact teachers' professional development, classroom interaction, and, ultimately, student learning experiences.

This study investigates the receptive-productive vocabulary Lexical Disparities among 287 intermediate ESP learners from four academic domains: Engineering, Computer Science, Medical Sciences, and Business. Employing a mixed-methods, corpus-driven design, it integrated corpus analysis of learner production, receptive and productive tests, and stimulated-recall interviews. Results revealed a substantial gap: learners recognized 77.3% of target items on average but accurately produced only 21.6% in spontaneous writing and speech. A mixed-effects logistic regression identified key predictors of productive use, including word frequency (OR=2.32), dispersion (OR=1.51), collocational strength (OR=1.33), and modality (written > spoken, OR=1.71). Crucially, technical terms showed a severe productive bottleneck, exacerbated for learners in Medical Sciences and Business. Qualitative analysis revealed this gap is driven by retrieval failure, collocational uncertainty, and strategic avoidance due to "register anxiety." The findings underscore that the receptive-productive divide is not merely a knowledge deficit but a complex interplay of lexical, cognitive, and affective factors. The study concludes by advocating for production-oriented pedagogical interventions in ESP that systematically bridge this gap through structured output, collocational practice, and activities designed to build lexical confidence.

This study investigated how L2 learners of German and English responded to their partners’ errors during a video-based exchange after participating in metacognitive instruction on corrective feedback. Participants were three L2 learners of German from a US university and three L2 learners of English from a German high school. All learners participated in a 75-min metacognitive instruction session during which they were introduced to six types of input-providing and output-prompting feedback. Following the training, each pair met on Zoom ten times throughout the semester to discuss various topics in German and English for approximately 40 min. Quantitative and qualitative analyses were performed to determine the amount and types of feedback provided, and stimulated recall interviews were conducted to understand learners’ reasoning behind using or not using specific feedback types. Results suggest that Germany-based students regularly provided feedback on their partners’ errors whereas US-based students provided little feedback due to a lack of noticing and confidence. Both groups favoured input-providing over output-prompting feedback, which they considered easy, intuitive, efficient and appropriate for most errors. Pedagogical implications of these findings are discussed, including recommendations for designing effective metacognitive instruction sessions for virtual exchange programs.