Statistical Inference Research Articles

Background: Exclusive breastfeeding is an economically cheap, a yet crucial health practice which provides optimal nutrition for infants and short-term contraception for the mothers. The aim of this study was to assess the awareness and perception of exclusive breastfeeding as a method of family planning among nursing mothers in Ovia, Edo State, Nigeria and to identify factors that influence its perception which is vital to ensuring improved maternal and child health. Methods: A cross-sectional study design was adopted involving 290 nursing mothers selected using a multi-stage sampling technique. Data was collected through structured, self-administered questionnaire adapted from previous studies. Data analyses applied descriptive and inferential statistics using SPSS version 25.0, with logistic regression employed to identify significant predictors. A p value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: The majority (76.9%) of the respondents had knowlege of exclusive breastfeeding, about half (47.2%) were familiar with exclusive breastfeeding as a form of family planning method but only 15.2% strongly perceived exclusive breastfeeding as a good method of family planning. Age and occupation were significant predictor, with an odds ratio (OR) of 0.291 (p=0.001, CI=0.156-0.542) and occupation (p=0,041, CI=0.026-0.931) respectively. Conclusion: The study revealed that although knowledge of exclusive breastfeeding as a method of family planning was high among nursing mothers in Ovia, their perception was poor. The findings emphasize the need to ensure healthcare providers are equipped with the necessary knowledge and tools to effectively educate nursing mothers about exclusive breastfeeding as a method of family planning.

This study was conducted to assess the educational experiences, availability of resources, development of learners with Intellectual Disabilities (ID), and teachers’ practices in the special needs education settings in Central School in Cebu, Philippines, for the academic year 2024-2025. A descriptive-correlational design was employed, surveying 40 Special Needs Education teachers. The data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The findings showed high mean scores on learning experiences, indicating that the learning environment is positive and inclusive of students with intellectual disabilities, providing them with immense support. In all, the resource availability was high; visual aids and teacher training were also available. Assistive technology and adaptive furniture represented significant shortages. The overall educational progress of learners revealed moderate proficiency in cognitive, motor, and language development. The teachers employed many strategies to handle and support ID learners; however, the study found that some of these good practices were moderately practiced. Although quality of education related positively with teacher effectiveness, the weak link between resource availability and developmental outcomes called for more strategic use of available resources. The study concludes that continuous professional development for teachers on evidence-based practices and strategic investments in resources, especially in the areas of assistive technology and adaptive furniture, are core areas to improve learning experiences and development outcomes among students with ID. Thus, a very valued contribution to keep practice currently informed and on areas of further development, the researcher recommends an action plan toward better support of educational opportunities for learners with intellectual disabilities.

Transgender people are more likely to experience heightened risks of physical and psychological distress and tend to report a poorer quality of life compared to the general population. This study aimed to determine the quality of life and self-esteem, health-seeking behaviour, and to explore the lived experiences among transgender women. Using the snowball sampling technique, 73 transgender women were included in this mixed-methods study. Quantitative data were collected through the Short-Form-12 (SF-12) and the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (RSES). Maximum variation sampling was employed to select 10 participants for the qualitative component, aiming to gain in-depth insights into their personal experiences and health-seeking behaviours. Appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics were applied for analysis. A thematic analysis approach was used to represent qualitative findings. The mean age of the participants was 30.93 (SD = 4.70) years. Findings revealed that participants had poor mental (Mean µ = 38.80) and physical (Mean µ = 38.08) health. The cohort demonstrated a notably high level of self-esteem (Mean µ = 30.93 ± 4.70). A substantial proportion (76.7%) of participants experienced discrimination or mistreatment while seeking healthcare services, stating unfavorable experiences (19.2%) and strongly unsatisfied (5.5%), whereas more than half (56.2%) avoided giving any opinions. From the qualitative analysis, three major themes emerge: discovering my true identity as transgender person, survival in a world of discrimination, violence, and trauma, and struggle with economic, professional, and legal challenges. In our study, participants reported lower mental and physical health, experienced discrimination, and had negative perceptions while accessing health services. The study carries important implications for the development of inclusive and high-quality healthcare services to ensure transgender people's access to and utilization of healthcare.

Aim: Public hospitals in Mandera County, Kenya, continue to experience procurement execution challenges such as delays, noncompliance with procurement protocols, and inconsistent supplier performance. The study aimed to examine the relationship between supplier consistency appraisal and procurement implementation in public hospitals in Mandera County, Kenya. Methods: An explanatory research design was adopted. The target population was 303 respondents, comprising the procurement officers, accountants, and administration managers in the 101 public hospitals in Mandera. A sample size of 171 respondents was recruited for the study. Stratified sampling was used to select the respondents. Primary data were collected through structured questionnaires designed on a Likert scale. Data analysis used both descriptive and inferential statistics. The inferential statistics were correlation and regression analysis. Results: The study found that supplier appraisal practices significantly influence procurement implementation in public hospitals in Mandera County, Kenya (β=0.866, p=0.000). Conclusion: The study concludes that strengthening supplier consistency appraisal enhances transparency, accountability, and the overall efficiency of procurement systems in public hospitals. Recommendations: The study recommends that public hospitals in Mandera County enhance supplier consistency appraisal through digital systems that monitor delivery timelines, quality, and compliance. Cross-functional review teams and regular audits should be implemented to strengthen reliability. The Ministry of Health should establish a national supplier appraisal framework with capacity and risk metrics, mandate annual performance audits, and support procurement digitization through funding and training to promote transparency, accountability, and efficiency in public healthcare procurement.

Inguinal hernia repair (IHR) technique varies between children and adults, with adults commonly undergoing mesh placement. The aims of this study were to evaluate incidence of mesh placement in adolescent patients (12-17 years old) who underwent IHR and to evaluate incidence of hernia recurrence in relation to mesh placement. A retrospective chart review was conducted of pediatric patients who underwent initial IHR by pediatric surgeons at 20 U.S. hospitals from 2017 through 2019. The primary outcomes were mesh placement and hernia recurrence. Demographic, operative, and post-operative factors were collected. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the cohort including bivariate analysis to identify factors associated with mesh placement and recurrence. A total of 708 adolescents were included in the analysis: 78.1% were male with median age 15 years [IQR 13-16] and median BMI 20.6 kg/m2 [IQR 18.2-23.4]. Fifty-five patients (7.8%) had mesh placed during IHR. 9 of 708 adolescent patients (1.3%) had a documented hernia recurrence. On bivariate analysis, male sex, age, weight, and BMI were significantly associated with mesh placement. Of patients who had mesh placed, 85% (47/55) underwent an open approach. All but one hernia recurrence occurred in the no-mesh group, though this did not reach statistical significance (p=0.519). On binary regression analysis of mesh placement, increasing age and weight were associate with mesh placement. Few patients undergoing IHR by pediatric surgeons had mesh placed. Recurrence with minimum three-year follow-up was low at 1.3%, which may reflect that high ligation without mesh placement is adequate in adolescents.

Background: Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is increasingly used to supplement evidence-based medicine (EBM), especially in the treatment of cancer patients. Objective: The study aimed to analyze the beliefs, attitudes, and expectations of healthcare professionals and cancer patients regarding the integration of CAM into the Western medical system, and to examine differences between these groups in their expectations for CAM effectiveness. The hypotheses were that there are no statistically significant differences in attitudes between healthcare professionals (nurses and physicians) and cancer patients regarding CAM integration into EBM and the effectiveness of CAM. Methods: The study was conducted on a stratified sample of 832 respondents: 411 cancer patients and 421 health professionals (100 physicians and 321 nurses). Validated questionnaires based on CHBQ and IMAQ instruments were used. Descriptive and inferential statistics were applied in the analysis. Results: Patients showed a significantly more positive attitude toward CAM methods than healthcare professionals. A total of 70% of respondents believed that CAM should be integrated into EBM. Most respondents supported formally noting CAM therapies in medical records and including them in medical history. Healthcare professionals, especially physicians, expressed greater concerns about the effectiveness of CAM, while patients had more positive expectations about its benefits. Conclusions: The findings suggest that healthcare professionals require better education on CAM therapies and that greater openness is necessary to integrate these methods into medical practice. Although patients have high expectations for CAM, its inclusion in the formal medical system requires further research on safety and efficacy.

The general objective of this study was to examine the influence of coordination capability on performance of manufacturing small and medium enterprises in Nairobi City County, Kenya. The target population of this study consisted of four hundred and twenty-five (425) manufacturing small and medium enterprises registered by Kenya Association of Manufacturers and domiciled in Nairobi City County, Kenya. To achieve this objective, the study used proportionate stratified random sampling which is considered to be appropriate because of their uniqueness and segmentation of the various sector strata. The study adopted cross-sectional survey research design. Primary data was collected using structured questionnaires from a sample made up of owners of firms or their firm managers in the absence of the former and they constituted the unit of observation. Pilot testing was undertaken to test the validity and reliability of the questionnaire and pilot data analysis was done using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26. The results showed that the instrument met face and content validity as experts confirmed the questionnaire's content and applicability to the relevant subject domain. Results were presented in tables and graphs with clear explanations given based on the findings. Simple linear regression analysis was done to get descriptive and inferential statistics. This study used F-tests to test the significance of the overall model and the significance of each of the specific variable was determined by unstandardized coefficients. The study found that coordination capability had a positive and significant influence on performance of manufacturing small and medium enterprises in Nairobi City County, Kenya. The study recommended that firms needed to embrace coordination capability as it influenced performance of manufacturing small and medium enterprises.

ABSTRACT Background: Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome are significant public health concerns and social issues. Key players in efforts to stop HIV/AIDS as a public threat are healthcare personnel. Research has shown that negative attitudes of healthcare workers towards HIV can negatively influence their practices and these are associated with their level of knowledge about the disease. Objective: This study aims to investigate the baseline knowledge, attitudes, and practices of healthcare workers towards HIV/AIDS and to determine the association between profession and level of knowledge, attitudes and practices among healthcare workers in a tertiary pediatric government hospital. Methodology: This study utilized an analytical cross-sectional research design. Data were collected through a written questionnaire administered to 213 healthcare personnel, who were selected via stratified random sampling from January to April 2024. Knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) scores were evaluated using Bloom’s cut-off points. Scores below 60% were classified as low level of knowledge, negative attitude, and poor practice. Scores from 60-79% were classified as moderate level of knowledge, neutral attitude and fair practice. Lastly, scores between 80-100% were classified as high level of knowledge, positive attitude and good practice. Descriptive and inferential statistics, specifically Fisher’s test were used whenever appropriate. Results: Among 213 study participants, 140 (65.73%) demonstrated a high level of knowledge towards HIV/AIDS among doctors, nurses, medical technologists, and radiologic technologists. There were 161 (75.59%) who exhibited positive attitude towards HIV/AIDS and worked as pharmacists, physical therapists, and dentists. About 154 (72.30%) reported having fair practices on HIV/AIDS. Conclusion: The healthcare workers in our study have a high level of knowledge, positive attitude, and fair practices towards HIV/AIDS with significant differences between professions. There is a significant association between professions with the level of knowledge, attitudes, and practices towards HIV. Doctors, nurses, medical technologists, and radiologic technologists have higher level of knowledge on HIV/AIDS. Positive attitude was higher among pharmacists, physical therapists, and dentists. Lastly, good practices were highest among midwives.

Although local rice, Oryza glaberrima, is farmed more extensively in Nigeria, its quality makes it less desirable than Oryza sativa. This is a serious issue since it has an impact on the local variety's profitability, marketability, and production. This study analyzed the urban household consumption of rice before and after border closure in Ekiti State, Nigeria, while utilizing a multistage sampling procedure in administering a structured questionnaire to 120 urban household. Descriptive (Frequencies, percentages, and means) and Inferential statistics, Binary Logistic Regression, and OLS Multiple Regression were used to analyze the data. This study revealed that 76.7% of the respondents were married which is an indicator of responsibility and influence on preference, 70% of the respondents had tertiary education which describes the level of exposure likely to have been gained, 78.3% of the respondents consumed rice than twice a week. Imported rice was preferred by 82.9% pre-closure and 75.1% post-closure. Nigerian rice preference rose from 24.9% to 31.3%, notably 69.2% for white rice and 39.2% for Jollof rice, though imported rice remained dominant. It was concluded that households prefer imported rice to Nigerian rice in the study area each variety of rice has its own attribute of influence on preference, which was dependent on inherence and quality. A perfect system for monitoring and evaluating the quality of rice flowing into the market should be developed; this will generate an equal concern for improvement across rice producing regions. Also, grading and standardization should be incorporated into the Nigerian rice market, to raise the confidence of the consumers in demand for our products.

BackgroundClimate change has been identified as the biggest threat to global public health.1 Despite the clear connection between negative health outcomes and anthropogenic climate change, there are few guidelines for curricular inclusion within healthcare education, including occupational therapy (OT). However, the World Federation of Occupational Therapists has emphasized the importance of sustainability,2 and the American Occupational Therapy Association published a policy asserting the profession's commitment to addressing these topics.3ObjectiveThis study explored the perspectives of OT educators in the United States on the relevance, importance, and feasibility of integrating climate change and environmental sustainability into OT education programs.MethodsAn online Qualtrics survey was distributed, with 64 respondents across the United States. Descriptive and inferential statistics were conducted to determine relationships between respondent responses to question pairs. Qualitative responses underwent thematic analysis.ResultsMost educators acknowledged the relevance and importance of addressing climate change and environmental sustainability. Several barriers hindered implementation, including an already overloaded curriculum with a lack of explicitly related Accreditation Council for Occupational Therapy standards, limited time, a lack of awareness of how climate change and environmental sustainability fit into OT programs, and skepticism about climate change as relevant to OT practice.ConclusionsThe findings indicate varied perspectives among US-based OT faculty. They suggest a need for educational resources that link climate change and environmental sustainability to health, occupation and other core tenets of OT and offer strategies for integrating this content into OT education.

Late preterm infants represent nearly a quarter of a million infants born in the United States annually. There is a known variation in admission location for these infants. The objective of this study was to identify the timing and reasons for transfer for late preterm infants requiring an escalation in care during the birth hospitalization. This single-center retrospective cohort study examined the birth hospitalization for late preterm infants (34 + 0 to 36 + 6weeks) born between 2019 and 2021, specifically focusing on infants requiring an escalation to a higher level of care. Infants with congenital anomalies expecting neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) admission were excluded. The analysis included descriptive and inferential statistics. Of 1022 infants, 150 symptomatic infants were admitted to the level III/IV NICU at birth. Of the remaining 872 infants, 14% (n = 124) received escalation of care (n = 77 from level I to II, 25 from level I to III/IV, 22 from level II to III/IV). The most common reasons for escalation were need for respiratory support (n = 32, 26%), cardiorespiratory monitoring (n = 31, 25%), thermoregulation (n = 29, 23%), and dextrose-containing intravenous fluids (n = 27, 22%). Infants required escalation of care at a median of 12.5hours after birth (IQR 4-40hours, range 0-133), with 50% (n = 62) occurring within the first 12hours and 67% (n = 83) within 24hours. Escalation of care for late preterm infants most frequently occurs in the first 24hours after birth. The most frequent reasons for escalation were the need for respiratory support, followed by cardiorespiratory monitoring and thermoregulation.

Effective strategy implementation is pivotal for enhancing performance in medical training institutions, particularly in resource-constrained environments like Kenya’s healthcare education sector. This study aimed to establish the influence of strategy implementation on the performance of Kenya Medical Training College (KMTC), Nakuru Campus. Grounded in the Resource-Based View (RBV) Theory, the study examined organizational alignment, quality management, resource allocation, and employee involvement as predictors of performance, measured through growth index, market share, and cost leadership. A descriptive survey design was adopted, targeting 196 permanent employees, with a sample of 132 respondents selected using stratified random sampling. Data were collected via structured questionnaires and analyzed using descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations) and inferential statistics (Pearson correlation, multiple linear regression) via SPSS. Findings revealed a significant positive influence of strategy implementation on performance (β=0.248, p=0.024), with a strong correlation (r=0.801, p<0.01). Organizational alignment and quality management were key strengths, though transparency in resource allocation and employee engagement showed gaps, with 26.4%–33.6% neutral responses. The study recommends adopting transparent resource allocation systems and enhancing employee involvement to boost performance. Future research should explore digital tools to support strategy implementation in medical training institutions. Keywords: Strategy Implementation, Organizational Performance, Resource-Based View, Kenya Medical Training College, Nakuru Campus

Investment efficiency is essential for maximizing returns, optimizing resource allocation, managing risk, ensuring long-term sustainability, fostering stakeholder confidence, and enabling informed strategic decision-making. Nevertheless, investment levels in developing nations like Kenya have yet to recover to pre-crisis levels. A concerning trend in emerging economies, including Kenya, has been the persistent decline in investment efficiency over time, presenting a formidable challenge for investors and businesses alike. Thus, the study’s general objective was to establish the moderating effect of board capital on the relationship between cash flow management practice signs were adopted to establish the causal relationship between the study’s variables by use of panel data. After exclusion and inclusion criteria, the study utilized the data of 29 non-financial listed companies covering the period 2012−2023. A document report guide was used to collect the data. The Hausman test was used in deciding between the fixed and random effects models, and both the Breusch-Pagan tests were used to assess heteroskedasticity. The data for the study was analyzed through descriptive and inferential statistics using statistical techniques including Pearson correlation coefficient and multiple regression analysis. All the analyses were done with the aid of STATA software version 13. The hypotheses were tested through hierarchical multiple regression models. The findings of this study revealed that operating cash flow management (β= 0.182, ρ<0.05) was positive and statistically significant. Board capital moderates the relationship between operating cash flow management practices and investment efficiency (β= -0.006, ρ<0.05). The study suggests that managers in non-financial companies prioritize improving operational efficiencies. The findings of this study can help direct the allocation of resources and concentrate on improving operational decisions. Because board capital has a moderating influence that is beneficial, it is essential for businesses to carefully select board members who possess the proper experience and networks that improve financial strategy. This highlights the significance of human capital in governance systems and encourages businesses to make investments in the growth of their boards of directors. The findings have the potential to provide policymakers and regulatory agencies with information highlighting the significance of strong governance structures in the process of enhancing investment efficiency.

Statistical inference for the semi-parametric proportional reversed hazard model for left-censored and zero-inflated data

Organizational success or failure largely depended on employee performance. Many organizations therefore invested substantial amounts of money in developing human capital in order to achieve competitive advantage. This study therefore aimed to investigate the influence of human resource development practices on the performance of the horticultural flower industry in Kenya. The objectives of the study were to determine the influence of recruitment and selection on employee performance within the horticultural industry in Kenya, to assess how training and development influenced employee performance, to determine the influence of reward and compensation on employee performance, and to examine the effect of work environment improvement on employee performance within the horticultural flower industry in Kenya. The study was anchored on the Human Resource-Based View (RBV) Theory and Organizational Learning Theory. The study employed a descriptive research design. Mt. Kenya region directly employed about 9,600 workers who formed the target population for the study. Sixteen flower farms from the Mt. Kenya region were purposely selected. A sample of 384 respondents was drawn from the population. Primary data were collected using semi-structured questionnaires containing both open- and closed-ended questions. The questionnaires were administered by the researcher under close supervision. Pilot testing of the questionnaires was conducted through convenience sampling. The data gathered were analyzed quantitatively using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Both descriptive and inferential statistics were applied. Descriptive statistics, including mean and standard deviation, were used to summarize the characteristics of the study variables, while inferential statistics were used to establish the relationship between the dependent and independent variables. Finally, multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to determine the overall relationship between employee performance and the independent variables. The study concluded that recruitment and selection, training and development, reward and compensation management, and work environment all had a significant influence on employee performance within the horticultural flower industry in Kenya. It was recommended that horticultural firms implement structured recruitment processes that include rigorous screening, interviews, and assessments to identify candidates who meet both technical and cultural fit requirements. Additionally, firms should develop comprehensive development plans outlining employee training needs and career paths, regularly assess skills, and tailor training programs accordingly. The study further recommended that firms ensure compensation packages remain fair and competitive within the industry and foster a positive organizational culture that values diversity, teamwork, and employee recognition.

This study investigated internal financial control policy, and financial budget implementation on financial accountability within Kenyan county governments, with a specific focus on Murang'a County. The research was anchored on Agency Theory and Systems Theory, which provided the framework for analyzing the principal-agent dynamics and the interconnectedness of control components within the county's financial systems. The study employed a cross-sectional research design and collected primary data from 80 respondents within the Department of Finance and Economic Planning of Murang'a County, selected using a stratified sampling technique. Data was gathered via structured questionnaires and analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics, including correlation and multiple linear regression, with the aid of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The key findings revealed significant positive relationships between financial accountability and each of the following variables: internal financial control policies, and financial budget implementation, Regression analysis indicated that these four variables collectively accounted for 66.3% of the variation in financial accountability, The study concludes that robust internal control systems are fundamental to enhancing financial accountability in devolved governments. Consequently, it is recommended that county governments should prioritize strengthening budget execution processes, intensifying fraud awareness campaigns, and reinforcing internal control policies and risk assessment mechanisms to ensure greater fiscal transparency and stewardship of public funds.

Purpose: This study examined the influence of internal communication on employee productivity in the ready-mix (RMX) concrete industry in Kiambu County. The objectives were to determine the influence of internal communication strategies that are used in the selected RMX companies within Kiambu County on employee productivity, establishing the role of internal communication in batching operations, to assess employees’ perceptions of communication and its implications on their productivity and to identify the impact of internal communication challenges affecting employee productivity. Methodology: From a target population of 134 employees, 117 participated in the study, representing a response rate of 83.7%. Respondents were drawn from Rhombus Concrete, Homes Concrete and Sidai Concrete using systematic random sampling. Data was collected through structured questionnaires with Likert-scale items administered to employees, and Key Informant Interviews conducted on the managers. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics in SPSS, while qualitative data was examined thematically. Findings: The findings showed that task-specific communication, particularly during batching, had the most substantial impact on employee productivity by enhancing operational accuracy and reducing errors. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: The study recommended that RMX companies adopt clear task-focused communication protocols, align policies with communication needs, and institutionalize continuous improvement mechanisms to foster transparency, responsiveness, and sustainable competitiveness.

This paper introduces a novel framework integrating neutrosophic logic with information geometry, establishing the foundation of \textit{neutrosophic statistical manifolds}. We define a neutrosophic MR-metric structure on statistical manifolds, incorporating truth, indeterminacy, and falsity membership functions to quantify distributional similarity, epistemic uncertainty, and dissimilarity. The proposed structure generalizes the Fisher--Rao metric through a symmetric triple-based formulation using Jensen--Shannon divergence. We prove that the triplet $(\mathcal{T}, \mathcal{I}, \mathcal{F})$ satisfies all axioms of a neutrosophic MR-metric space and derive explicit relations between the contraction constant $R$ and the curvature of the underlying statistical manifold. Several applications are explored, including Gaussian and categorical models, hypothesis testing, model selection, geometric machine learning, and quantum information geometry. This work bridges fixed-point theory in generalized metric spaces with statistical inference under uncertainty, offering a robust tool for uncertainty-aware data analysis.

In this article, different Bayes techniques are applied to derive the estimators of the additional shape parameter (α) of Type II Topp Leone Generalized In verted Exponential (TIITLGIE) distribution in the case of complete samples. Two cases were adopted: (a) Bayesian estimation with non-informative priors (Jeffrey’s prior and Quasi prior under three different risk functions: Relative Quadratic loss function (Rq), Precautionary loss function (P) and Entropy loss function (E)). (b) Bayesian estimation with informative prior depending on standard Bayesian technique is derived under three types of loss functions: Squared Error loss function (SE), Linear Exponential loss function (LINEX) and General Entropy loss function (GE). Mont Carlo simulation study was conducted to find the estimators and compare between these techniques and the Non-Bayesian techniques. Some results are given and showed the best estimation method. Numerical computations and real data sets are given to illustrate these results

Most datasets suffer from partial or complete missing values, which has downstream limitations on the available models on which to test the data and on any statistical inferences that can be made from the data. Several imputation techniques have been designed to replace missing data with stand in values. The various approaches have implications for calculating clinical scores, model building and model testing. The work showcased here supports using an Item Response Theory (IRT) based approach for categorical imputation, comparing it against several methodologies currently used in the machine learning field including k-nearest neighbors (kNN), multiple imputed chained equations (MICE) and Amazon Web Services (AWS) deep learning method, DataWig. Analyses comparing these techniques were performed on three different datasets that represented ordinal, nominal and binary categories. The data were modified so that they also varied on both the proportion of data missing and the systematization of the missing data. Two different assessments of performance were conducted: accuracy in reproducing the missing values, and predictive performance using the imputed data. Results demonstrated that the proposed method, Item Response Theory for categorical imputation, fared quite well compared to currently used multiple imputation methods, outperforming several of them in many conditions. Given the theoretical basis for the approach, and the unique generation of probabilistic terms for determining category belonging for missing cells, IRT for categorical imputation offers a viable alternative to current approaches.