State Self-control Research Articles

Mindfulness buffers the negative effects of social media overuse on work effort through state self-control during crisis: a daily diary study

ABSTRACT To examine the impact of social media overuse on work effort amidst crisis, we apply Conservation of Resources theory to explain how social media acts as an internal stressor that depletes daily self-regulatory resources, resulting in lower daily work effort. Further, we explore whether daily mindfulness acts as a personal resource that individuals can draw from to buffer the negative effects of social media on organisational outcomes. To examine our theoretical model, we use a type of experience sampling methodology (ESM). We followed 227 participants partaking in a 30-day mindfulness challenge during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic (May/June 2020) through a daily diary study resulting in 3,851 data points at the within-person level. We examined the association between daily social media overuse and employee work effort through the mediating mechanism of daily state self-control capacity and daily mindfulness as a potential moderator of this relationship. Results suggest that daily social media overuse was related to decreased daily work effort through reduced state self-control; however, participants experienced less decline in work effort following social media overuse on days that they were more mindful, suggesting mindfulness acts as a personal resource that buffers the strain on daily state self-control capacity.

Prior self-control exertion decreases pre-frontal cortex oxygenation during a CO2 rebreathing challenge but does not affect perceptions of dyspnoea or tolerance time

IntroductionDyspnoea perception is influenced by a complex interplay of physiological, psychological, and environmental factors. Recently, we showed that males with high trait self-control experience less dyspnoea and persist for longer in a carbon dioxide (CO2) rebreathing challenge than males with low trait self-control. As self-control can also vary within individuals (state self-control), the primary aim of the present study was to investigate whether prior self-control exertion influenced perceptions of dyspnoea and tolerance of a CO2 rebreathing challenge in healthy young males. We also used functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to assess haemodynamic activity of the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) which is a region of interest (ROI) in dyspnoea research, and the primary brain region associated with exertion of self-control. MethodsIn a within-subjects design, fifteen healthy young males completed an easy (congruent) Stroop task (control condition) and a difficult (incongruent) Stroop task (prior self-control exertion, experimental condition) followed by a CO2 rebreathing challenge until the limit of tolerance. Changes in oxyhaemoglobin (ΔO2Hb) and deoxyhaemoglobin (ΔHHb) were assessed continuously in the Stroop task and CO2 rebreathing challenge. During the CO2 rebreathing challenge, dyspnoea intensity and unpleasantness were rated every 30 s. ResultsPrior self-control exertion did not affect perceptions of dyspnoea or tolerance time in the CO2 rebreathing challenge (all P > 0.05). ΔO2Hb from baseline was higher in the left (+38 %) and right (+44 %) pre-frontal cortices during the difficult Stroop task than the easy Stroop task (both P < 0.05). During the subsequent CO2 rebreathing challenge, ΔO2Hb was attenuated following prior self-control exertion in the left PFC. ConclusionsAlthough prior self-control exertion decreased pre-frontal cortex oxygenation during a subsequent CO2 rebreathing challenge, there was no change in tolerance time or perceptions of dyspnoea.

Impact of self-control and time perception on intertemporal choices in gain and loss situations.

Individuals frequently encounter dilemmas in which they must choose between smaller, immediate gains and larger, delayed rewards; this phenomenon is known as intertemporal choice. The present study analyzed the interplay of trait and state self-control and time perception tendencies (time overestimation vs. time underestimation) and how it influences the rates of selecting immediate options in both gain and loss situations by conducting an intertemporal choice task. Experiment 1 was used to explore the impact of trait self-control and time perception on intertemporal choices within gain and loss situations. In Experiment 2, the e-crossing task was used to induce self-control resource depletion in participants and to investigate the impact of self-control resources and time perception on intertemporal choices in gain and loss situations. The results indicate that (1) compared with the high-self-control group, the low-self-control group exhibited a greater tendency to choose immediate options. Additionally, the high time estimation group was more likely to opt for immediate choices than the low time estimation group was. Furthermore, participants were more likely to select immediate options in the loss situation than in the gain situation. (2) In the gain situation, the high time estimation group was more likely to choose immediate options than was the low time estimation group. However, in the loss situation, the difference between the two groups was nonsignificant. (3) Time perception and gain-loss situations exerted a moderating mediating effect on the impact of self-control resources on intertemporal choices. These findings shed light on the influence of both self-control abilities and self-control resources on intertemporal choices. They provide valuable insights into intertemporal decision behaviors across diverse contexts and indicate the need for rational analysis based on one's current state to mitigate cognitive biases to ensure individuals can maximize benefits in their daily lives.

The Role of State and Trait Self-Control on the Sustained Attention to Response Task.

This study aimed to assess the plausibility of self-control depletion, or ego-depletion, as the underlying cognitive resource responsible for performance decrements on the sustained attention to response task. Researchers suggested that self-control is a limited cognitive resource used to complete a myriad of processes, including sustained attention. Past research showed that trait self-control affects some sustained attention tasks. However, little research has investigated the effect of self-control as a limited cognitive resource that varies over time (i.e., as a state-dependent variable). This experiment investigated the effect of self-control (trait and state) on a sustained motor-inhibition task (e.g., sustained attention to response task; SART). State self-control was manipulated using a between-subjects design-participants in the experimental condition completed a task designed to deplete state self-control prior to performing the SART while the control condition completed a modified version that did not deplete self-control. Trait self-control predicted performance on the SART, but the depletion task (state self-control) had no detectable effect. Given the evidence, it is unlikely that state self-control plays a causal role in performance decrements in the SART, but there appears to be some association between performance on the SART and trait self-control. Trait self-control ought to be considered in future work for personnel selection in real-world tasks that the SART models such as long-distance driving, air traffic control, and TSA operations.

“Have to do” or “willing to do”: Examining the relationship between self-control and academic emotions using experience sampling method

The purpose of this study was to examine the antecedents of academic emotions among university students through real-time and multilevel analyses. We explored the link between state self-control and academic emotions, the influence of self-determination on the relationship between them, and the moderating role of trait self-control. The data was collected over seven consecutive days during which university students (N = 155) completed smartphone questionnaires. Data was organized into hierarchical two-level structures, where situations (Level 1) nested within individuals (Level 2). The results showed that positive emotions were negatively predicted by state self-control while negative emotions were positively predicted by state self-control. Moreover, state self-control under low self-determination was a significant negative predictor of positive emotions, whereas high self-determination had no predictive effect on positive emotions. The relationship between self-determination and negative emotions was further moderated by trait self-control. The limitations of this study and future research directions are also discussed.

The association between future self-continuity and problematic mobile video gaming among Chinese college students: the serial mediation of consideration of future consequences and state self-control capacity

BackgroundTo explore the relationship between future self-continuity and problematic mobile video gaming among Chinese college students and to examine the serial mediation of consideration of future consequences and state self-control capacity on the association between future self-continuity and problematic mobile video gaming, based on Identity-Based Motivation Theory.MethodsThe Problematic Mobile Video Gaming Scale, Future Self-continuity Scale, Consideration of Future Consequences Scale, and Short Version of State Self-control Capacity Scale were administered to a sample comprising 800 college students (338 males accounting for 42.3%). Multivariate analysis and latent variables analysis were utilized to explore the separate mediating role consideration of future consequences and state self-control capacity played in the association between future self-continuity and problematic mobile video gaming, and their serial mediation also was investigated. The Bootstrap method was employed to test the significance of these mediation effects.ResultsThe negative association between future self-continuity and problematic mobile video gaming was moderately found. Students with increased consideration of future consequences from higher levels of future self-continuity have decreased their problematic mobile video gaming. Future self-continuity significantly positively predicted state self-control capacity, which in turn significantly negatively predicted problematic mobile video gaming. The serial mediation was also found.ConclusionThe findings revealed why differences in identification with the current and future selves become influencing factors in problematic mobile video gaming. This study observed the mediating role that consideration of future consequences and state self-control capacity play in the association between future self-continuity and problematic mobile video gaming.

Altruistic behaviour decreases agent's unhealthy food intake: Based on the self-determination theory model of vitality.

This study explored whether altruistic behaviour would decrease agent's unhealthy food intake, and whether vitality and state self-control would sequentially mediate this effect based on the Self-Determination Theory Model of Vitality. It included 1019 college students in total across three studies. Study 1 was a laboratory experiment. By framing a physical task as a helping behaviour or a neutral experimental task, we examined whether these framed tasks impacted participants' subsequent unhealthy food intake levels. Study 2 was an online investigation measuring the relationship between donation (vs. no donation) behaviour and participant's estimated unhealthy food intake level. Study 3 was an online experiment with a mediation test. By random assignment of conducting a donation behaviour versus a neutral task, we examined whether these behaviours affected participants' vitality, state self-control, and estimated unhealthy food intake levels. In addition, we tested a sequential mediation model with vitality and state self-control as the mediators. Both unhealthy and healthy foods were included in Study 2 and 3. Results showed that altruistic behaviour could decrease agent's unhealthy (but not healthy) food intake, and this effect was sequentially mediated by vitality and state self-control. The findings highlight that altruistic acts may buffer agents against unhealthy eating behaviour.

Temporal tuning of illuminance and spectrum: Effect of a full-day dynamic lighting pattern on well-being, performance and sleep in simulated office environment

Dynamic lighting is a potentially promising solution to meet the individual's chronobiologic and psychological needs at specific times of day or for specific activities. Yet, few studies have investigated the impact of dynamic lighting patterns on daytime functioning and nocturnal sleep, and the optimal dynamic lighting pattern remains largely unknown. The current study assessed the effects of a daylong dynamic lighting (DL) pattern with modulations in intensity and spectrum vs. static office lighting (SL) on markers of well-being, cognitive performance, visual experiences, and sleep in a simulated office environment. Twenty-one subjects participated in the 48-h balanced crossover laboratory study. The findings revealed time-of-day and experimental-day dependent benefits of the DL vs. SL pattern on daytime vitality, sleepiness, state self-control, mood, performance on a sustained attention task and subsequent subjective sleep quality. Complementing earlier research outcomes reported in the literature, the current study suggests that a dynamic lighting approach could be a practical strategy to support office workers' daytime well-being and nocturnal sleep. Yet, the results revealed no consistent pattern across assessments nor across the different types of metrics at a specific assessment, thus additional research regarding the optimization of lighting parameters and pattern is needed.

Effects of Ambient Illuminance on Explicit and Implicit Altruism: The Mediation Roles of Perceived Anonymity and Satisfaction with Light.

Ambient light plays a key role in social interactions, and the effects of ambient light on explicit altruism have been widely documented. However, whether ambient light affects implicit altruism and the potential mechanisms underlying the effect remain largely unknown. The current study aimed to explore the effects of ambient illuminance on explicit and implicit altruism simultaneously, and to determine the potential mediation role of subjective mood, state self-control perceived anonymity and satisfaction with light. A one-factor (Illuminance: dim (100 lx) vs. bright (1000 lx) at eye level), between-subjects design was employed in the current study, during which seventy-eight undergraduates (52 females, 18-25 years old) were assigned to two groups, with participants in each group undergoing both the dictator game assessing explicit altruism and the implicit association test (IAT) assessing implicit altruism under one of two illuminance conditions. Meanwhile, subjective mood, state self-control, perceived anonymity and satisfaction with light were also assessed with questionnaires at the beginning or/and at the end of the experiment. Results revealed that participants tended to allocate more money in the dictator game and showed a higher state self-control, satisfaction with light and lower perceived anonymity under bright versus dim illuminance condition, whereas the performance in IAT and subjective mood revealed no statistically significant effects of illuminance. The promoting effect of bright illuminance on explicit altruism was partially mediated by perceived anonymity and satisfaction with light, but not by state self-control. These findings suggest that ambient light holds the potential to regulate psychological well-being and thus facilitate prosocial behavior, but such benefits are dependent on the type of task.

More Innovative, More Delay? A Self-Control Model of the Effect of Creativity on Procrastination

Existing research on creativity mainly investigates abundant antecedents of creativity to reveal how to foster it, which is based on the assumption that creativity is always beneficial. Recently, several scholars indicated that creativity might result in potentially negative consequences. However, the research line of the dark side of creativity only focused on morality- and interpersonal issues, whereas task-related behavioral consequences at work rarely attracted attention. Drawing on the integrative self-control theory, the present research hypothesized that creativity leads to disinhibition and then undermines self-control, which in turn results in self-control failure as well as more procrastination at work. Besides, we also proposed the boundary condition of this relationship. We conducted two experimental studies, one multi-wave survey study, and one diary study to examine our theoretical model. Cross-cultural experimental studies revealed that induced creative mindset had a causal influence on state self-control and intention to procrastination. The survey study revealed that creativity had a negative effect on state self-control and a positive effect on procrastination at work, and that job autonomy strengthened such effects. The diary study revealed that within-person creative engagement had a negative effect on state self-control and a positive effect on procrastination at work within the same day, and that job autonomy strengthened such effects. Our research provides a novel perspective on the dark side of creativity and empirical evidence for the hypothesis of creative disinhibition. Theoretical and practical implications are also discussed.

Predicting undergraduate students’ learning from a lecture: The role of self-control, motivation, and mental effort

For the first time, the present study investigated the combined role of selfcontrol, motivation, and mental effort in predicting undergraduate students’ learning from a two-hour presentation-format higher education lecture. The study comprised 62 students, in a final-year BSc undergraduate Sports Coaching lecture, who completed questionnaires measuring: state self-control during the lecture; mastery approach and performance avoidance motivation towards learning the course topic; mental effort invested during the lecture; and content retention immediately after the lecture (i.e., learning). Moderated mediation analyses revealed that greater levels of state self-control (W variable) were necessary for students to transform their motivation (X variable; mastery approach or performance avoidance) into mental effort (M variable) to benefit their learning (Y variable) during the lecture. Avenues for applied interventions to motivate students and increase their self-control resources within higher education environments are discussed.

Greed Restraint: Ambiguity Aversion, Reference Dependence, and Self-Centeredness as Sources of Self-Regulation in Instrumental Crime

Based on in-depth interviews with 29 active drug robbers (25 male, 4 female) from St. Louis, MO (USA), we explore restraint among people and in circumstances where there should be none. Focusing on greed restraint at the crime’s payoff point (i.e., not taking everything one could when rewards are seized), we identify the decision-making constructs and conceptual pathways by which this happens and discuss their implications for improved specification of the relationship between criminal propensity, self-regulation, and risk sensitivity. We contend that self-centeredness is the one dimension of criminal propensity that is sufficiently receptive to risk sensitivity to make self-regulation possible, and that individuals with low trait self-control can show state self-control when ambiguity aversion and reference point expectations align to sate anomic greed. This refinement offers novel pathways for future study of dual-influence models of crime, and suggests that offender decision-making is best conceptualized as a process that unfolds during crimes rather than a discrete event that precedes them.

Effects of Self-Control on Subjective Well-Being: Examining the Moderating Role of Trait and State Motivation.

It is well documented that self-control has a positive effect on individuals’ subjective well-being. However, little research has focused on the moderators underlying this relationship. The present research used two studies to examine the moderating role of both trait and state motivation on the relationship between self-control and subjective well-being using psychometric and experimental models, respectively. In Study 1, we explored whether trait motivation (including promotion vs. prevention motivation) moderated the relationship between trait self-control and subjective well-being using a psychometric model. In Study 2, we examined the moderating effects of both trait and state motivation on the effect of state self-control (measured via ego depletion) on subjective well-being using an experimental model. Our results indicated that self-control had a positive effect on subjective well-being, with this relationship being primarily moderated by prevention motivation. When state and trait prevention motivations were congruent, self-control had the most obvious impact on subjective well-being. This study suggests that current understandings around the association between self-control and happiness is limited, implying that motivation should be the focus of future research.

Self-controlled responses to COVID-19: Self-control and uncertainty predict responses to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Two online studies (Total N = 331) tested the hypothesis that individual differences in self-control and responses to uncertainty would predict adherence to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2020a) guidelines, reported stockpiling, and intentions to engage in hedonic behavior in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Trait self-control (b = 0.27, p = .015), desire for self-control (Study 1: b = 0.28, p = .001; Study 2: b = 0.27, p = .005), and cognitive uncertainty (b = 0.73, p < .001) predicted more CDC adherence. State self-control (Study 1: b = −0.15, p = .012; Study 2: b = −0.26, p < .001) predicted less stockpiling, whereas emotional uncertainty (b = 0.56, p < .001) and cognitive uncertainty (b = 0.61, p < .001) predicted more stockpiling. State self-control (b = −0.18, p = .003) predicted less hedonic behavior, whereas desire for self-control (b = 0.42, p < .001) and emotional uncertainty (b = 0.26, p = .018) predicted more hedonic behavior. Study 2 (pre-registered) also found that emotional uncertainty predicted more stockpiling and hedonic behavior for participants low in state self-control (stockpiling: b = −0.31, p < .001; hedonic behavior: b = 0.28, p = .025), but not for participants high in state self-control (stockpiling: b = 0.03, p = .795; hedonic behavior: b = −0.24, p = .066). These findings provide evidence that some forms of self-control and uncertainty influenced compliance with behavioral recommendations during the COVID-19 pandemic.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12144-021-02066-y.

Too Much of a Good Thing? Exercise Dependence in Endurance Athletes: Relationships with Personal and Social Resources.

(1) Background: A large body of research has examined the positive effects of physical activity on physical and mental health. However, for some, excessive exercise can develop into an addiction that is detrimental to their health. In the present study, we examine potential personal (self-control, self-concordance) and social (social support) resources that we assume to be related to exercise dependence. (2) Methods: One hundred and forty athletes from different endurance sports participated in an online survey. Exercise dependence, self-control, self-concordance, and social support were assessed using questionnaires that are well-established in health and sport psychology. Additionally, further sport-relevant and demographic variables were assessed. (3) Results: Correlational analyses supported our hypotheses that exercise dependence is negatively correlated with the personal resources trait, state self-control, and self-concordance. Social support, however, was not significantly correlated with exercise dependence. Furthermore, the results of a mediation analysis revealed that the relationship between both personal traits (self-control, self-concordance) and exercise dependence was mediated by state self-control. (4) Conclusions: Our results indicate that trait self-control and self-concordance might be important personal resources that protect against exercise dependence by making state self-control available.

Effect of coworker ostracism on newcomer socialization: A self-control perspective

Researchers have consistently reported the negative role of workplace ostracism, and the importance of newcomers to an organization. However, none have examined the effect of coworker ostracism on newcomer socialization. Drawing on the strength model of self-control, we empirically tested the effect of coworker ostracism on newcomer socialization via the mediator of state self-control. Participants were 155 matched supervisor–subordinate dyads. Results show that coworker ostracism toward newcomers was negatively related to newcomer socialization and that this relationship was mediated by state self-control. Further, the direct effect of coworker ostracism on state self-control and the indirect effect of coworker ostracism on newcomer socialization were moderated by proactive personality. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

An investigation of the effects of self-reported self-control strength on shooting performance

During professional shooting tournaments, which typically last multiple hours, athletes must stay focused at all times in order to perform at their highest levels. Sustaining attention over extended periods of time relies on self-control. Crucially, perceived state self-control strength appears to wane as a function of task duration, which ultimately can impair shooting performance. In the present study, we tested the assumption that the level of self-reported self-control strength decreases over the course of a 1-h shooting task measured twice during a regular training day and separated by a 2-h break. Additionally, we assumed that shooting performance would be linked with fluctuations in self-control. A total of 21 shooters (14 elite and 7 sub-elite) took part in this study and were asked to perform a series of 10 shots at a standardized target, five times in the morning and five times in the afternoon (i.e., 100 shots total). The participants also reported their perceived state self-control strength at the baseline (prior to the start of the morning session as well as the afternoon session) and after a series of 10 shots each in the morning and afternoon (i.e., 12 measurements in total). In line with our hypotheses, we observed that perceived state self-control diminished with the number of shots performed, and that perceived state self-control could explain shooting performance. Additionally, these observations could explain the difference in shooting performance between elite and sub-elite athletes. The results suggest that the perception of self-control strength is highly important for optimal shooting performance. Practical implications are discussed.

An uncalculated risk: ego-depletion reduces the influence of perceived risk but not state affect on criminal choice

ABSTRACT This study assessed the relationship between state self-control and criminal choice, as well as the moderating influence of key mediators namely: perceived risk, positive and negative state affect, as well as perceived social consensus. Using a standard ego-depletion task and a between groups design (N = 390), participants responded to four vignettes regarding the likelihood of engaging in a criminal behavior, the perceived risk and severity of apprehension, how that situation made them feel, and the perceived social consensus around the acceptability of a given behavior. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to evaluate and contrast path coefficients between groups. Although there were no group differences in criminal choice, perceived risk was significantly associated with criminal choice in the control but not the depletion group. Conversely, in both groups positive state affect as well as perceived social consensus were positively associated with criminal choice while negative state affect negatively associated with criminal choice. Although state self-control may not directly influence variation in criminal choice, it may influence what factors associate with it. Thus, traditional deterrents may not be as effective in a lapse of self-control.

Predicting self-control capacity – Taking into account working memory capacity, motivation, and heart rate variability

The present study analyzes possible indicators for state self-control capacity (measured by a Simon task) after demanding executive function tasks as well as for trait self-control (measured by a questionnaire) by focusing on the interplay between control capacity and motivation (measured by demand-related action-state orientation; 154 students; M = 23.55 years; SD = 3.15). As possible control capacity variables, we focused on working memory capacity, based on the integrative theory of self-control, as well as on the baseline cardiac vagal control as a possible physiological index (not a resource itself) indicating control capacity based on the vagal tank theory. The vagal tank theory also focuses on within-subject changes in cardiac vagal control as a possible index of self-control capacity. Therefore, we analyzed among the first 54 participants (M = 24.61 years; SD = 2.67) baseline to post-event changes in cardiac vagal control. Following the integrative theory of self-control, the results indicated that both state and trait self-control capacity are predicted by an interplay of working memory capacity and action-state orientation. Focusing on the vagal tank theory, the results suggest that state self-control capacity can best be detected by the within-subject changes in cardiac vagal control instead of analyzing between-subject differences in cardiac vagal control. However, when focusing on trait self-control, cardiac vagal control might be an indicator, if considered without action state orientation.

Does state self-control depletion predict relationship functioning and partner aggression? An ecological momentary assessment study of community couples.

Intimate relationship functioning depends upon the ability to accommodate one's partner and to inhibit retaliatory and aggressive impulses when disagreements arise. However, accommodation and inhibition may be difficult when self-control strength is weak or depleted by prior exertion of self-control. The present study considered whether state self-control depletion prospectively predicts male and female self-reports of anger with partner and arguing with partner. Consistent with the I3 Model (Finkel, 2014, Adv Exp Soc Psychol, 49, 1-104), we also considered whether the association between elevated anger and arguing (i.e., instigation) and partner aggression was stronger when state self-control (i.e., inhibition) was depleted or among people high in negative urgency. In this ecological momentary assessment (EMA) study, heavy drinking married and cohabiting heterosexual couples (N = 191) responded to three randomly signaled reports each day for 30 days. Depletion predicted anger and arguing with partners both cross-sectionally and prospectively for men and women. However, after controlling for prior levels of anger and arguing, these effects were diminished, and supplemental analyses revealed that anger and arguing with partner predicted subsequent depletion. Anger and arguing were strongly associated with concurrent reports of partner aggression perpetration and victimization (verbal and/or physical). However, neither state self-control depletion nor negative urgency moderated these effects. Overall, results suggest a modest impact of depletion on daily couple functioning as well as a potential cyclical effect of arguing on depletion.