Libya Research Articles

Modern History and Politics: Tribes and the State in Libya and Iraq: From the Nationalist Era to the New Order, by Alison Pargeter (book review)

Tribes and the State in Libya and Iraq: From the Nationalist Era to the New Order, by Alison Pargeter. London: Hurst Publishers, 2023. 344 pages. £40 cloth, e-book.

Employing smartphone journalism and digital platforms in developing institutional digital content "A Study of the Communicator in Libyan Media Institutions"

The importance of the study lies in the fact that it addresses the importance of employing smartphone journalism and digital platforms in developing institutional digital content from the point of view of communicators working in Libyan media institutions. This study is considered a descriptive study that relies on a survey approach for communicators. In this study, the researcher adopted a random sample. The simple list is for those in charge of communicating with the Libyan government and private satellite channels in the State of Libya, numbering (50) individuals. The government channels included: the National Channel (10), Libya Sports Channel (7), and the official Libya Channel (6). As for the private channels, they included: Salam Channel ( 5), Waad channel (3), Al-Jamahiriya channel (3), Libya 218 channel (2), Libya channel for all free people (4), Libya channel Al-Hadath (6) and Libya channel, its soul is the homeland (4). In this study, the researcher relied on Through the electronic questionnaire tool. The study reached a set of results, the most important of which are: (58%) of those in charge of communicators in Libyan satellite channels did not receive training courses on how to employ smartphone journalism and digital platforms and that there were no statistically significant differences between those in charge of communicators in satellite channels. The Libyan government received training courses in smartphone journalism and digital platforms due to the channel ownership variable. At the same time, there is a correlation between those in charge of communicating in Libyan satellite channels receiving training courses in smartphone journalism and digital platforms according to the variable type and that (64%) of those in charge of communicating in the channels The Libyan satellite channel, among those who answered (agree), said that smartphone journalism and digital platforms are employed in the work of communicators in Libyan satellite channels, and that (48%) of those in charge of communicators in Libyan satellite channels, who answered (neutral) that the sources of smartphone journalism are unreliable, came out. The study has a set of recommendations, the most important of which are intensifying courses in smartphone journalism and digital platforms for workers in the media field, transferring modern technologies to the communicator, and continuous development of digital devices and equipment related to media work. Keywords: Employment, smartphone journalism, digital platforms, digital content development, communicator, Libyan satellite channels

Practical analysis of the crime of mercenary activity. case study of the libyan state

The mercenary phenomenon took on a particularly large scale of manifestation in the contemporary stage. Currently, their presence on the battlefield is no longer a secret. They can appear at various stages of the evolution of the military conflict, military actions or other violent actions aimed at overthrowing or undermining the constitutional order or violating the territorial integrity of the state. The activity of mercenaries is dictated either by the need of the people participating in these actions to benefit from some remuneration according to expectations, or by subjects who are in the shadows and pursue some goals and objectives to be achieved. Therefore, in the following order, we propose, as desired, to carry out an analysis of the presence of mercenaries in the State of Libya, as well as to study their role on the Libyan territory.

Wind farm site selection using BWM-AHP-MARCOS method: A case study of Libya

Exploiting renewable energies has become an urgent environmental requirement, especially in light of the high levels of pollution and increased global warming caused by the use of millions of tons of fossil fuels for energy production. Research has also helped reduce the cost of obtaining renewable energy, making it a strong competitor to traditional energy sources. Despite the fact that many developed countries have made great strides in using renewable energy sources as an important part of their energy mix, developing countries continue to suffer in this area, despite the availability of these energy sources. In this study, a hybrid multi-criteria approach based on a combination of three methods, namely the Best-Worst method, the Analytical Hierarchical Process method and the Measurement of Alternatives and Ranking According to Compromise Solution method, was applied in order to select the best site for the installation of a wind farm. The novelty of this study has been manifested through the fact that we developed and used this integrated model for the first time in literature. Thanks to applying two methods for determining criteria weights and one for ranking can be obtained more precise results and can be selected optimal location. Six criteria were used to compare the proposed sites. The combined Best-Worst method and the Analytical Hierarchical Process method were used to extract criteria weights. Based on the six criteria, a comparison was made between five proposed sites in the state of Libya, which is still almost entirely dependent on fossil fuels to obtain electricity. The result showed that the safety and quality criterion is the most important with a weight of 0.573, followed by the social impression criterion with a weight of 0.203. According to the model, the city of Derna, in the far northeast of the country, came out on top with a weight of 0.703, followed by the city of Tarhuna, in the west of the country, with a value of 0.35. In addition, a sensitivity analysis was performed to test the stability of the results by changing the weights of the criteria. The results obtained indicate the strength of the proposed model when the experts' opinions on the criteria change. The evaluation criteria and this methodology can be applied to other cities to continue the orientation towards sustainability.

Repercussions of the Continuous Instability for the Quality of Education in the State of Libya: An Investigational Study within the Faculty of Education, University of Benghazi (UoB)

Many confirmed negative signs and facts point to the general deterioration of the quality of Libya’s entire education system, with serious consequences for the future of the state of Libya. This deterioration is due to countless factors, such as ongoing political and militant conflicts, semi-paralyzed educational administrations, a lack of continuing professional development (CPD), and insufficient awareness within the Ministry of Education (MoE) of the state of the education system. Other contributing factors are the inefficient educational legislations from the parliament and the poor desire of policy makers to empower profound research, teamwork, reform ideas, or any suggested transformational strategies. Furthermore, the Centralized Management System (CMS) has detrimental effects, along with official reports on corruption issues in the MoE. Parallel to these causes, other circumstances impact the quality of the input and output of the Libyan education system (LES), such as the prevailing culture, beliefs, and attitudes on how education should be, whose most significant features are memorization and indoctrination. Such challenges have produced unqualified leadership and a huge number of decision makers who have harmed the LES instead of supporting it. Moreover, as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic and various suspensions (strikes/wars) of basic, secondary, and even vocational university education, several classes were postponed, canceled, or disrupted, which led to a great loss of knowledge among both teachers and learners. Correspondingly, Elabbar’s ([1], p. 121; [2], p. 19) studies have raised the warning indications to the highest level for the government, parliament, and all education authorities in the state of Libya, stating that the whole LES “may collapse very soon” if they do not adopt serious steps and fundamental measures “before it is too late.” Thus, this research study attempts to investigate such impacts on the quality of the education process and knowledge management (QEPKM) among students, teaching assistants, lecturers, and administrators at the Faculty of Education, University of Benghazi (UoB), with a special focus on the English Department. To closely classify the scale of impacts on the LES, this study uses four qualitative tools to collect and analyze data gathered from a wide range of participants: official documents, authentic academic reports, and experimental face-to-face interviews. The study recommends adding bridge programs for present and new students at the Faculty of Education, besides returning to the annual system (for at least 8 years) instead of the existing semester system, in addition to endorsing Elabbar's [2] proposed seven years of connected gradual reform phases for the reform strategy of the entire LES; otherwise, if all leading authorities do not seriously act toward reform, the whole education system in Libya will face major failings.

Introducing an Islamic equity-based microfinance models for MSMEs in the State of Libya

PurposeThis study aims to propose and verify the suitability and applicability of Islamic equity-based microfinance models for financing micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) in the State of Libya. The proposed models combine the unique features of social solidarity, cooperation “Ta’awan,” meeting religious requirements and providing financing more fairly and equitably.Design/methodology/approachA qualitative approach is applied in this study through semi-structured interviews with several Libyan experts, including Islamic bankers, Shariah scholars, MSMEs experts, Islamic microfinance experts and academicians. The data collected from 2019 to 2021 and thematic analysis by computer-based software NVivo is used to analyze the data.FindingsThe results indicate that the proposed Islamic equity-based microfinance models are suitable and applicable in Libya. This study also reveals that the proposed models have numerous potential benefits not only in meeting the financial needs of MSMEs but also in meeting the government objectives in economic divarication and socioeconomic development.Research limitations/implicationsFirst, the study proposes the applicability and suitability of Islamic equity-based models in financing MSMEs only, while large firms are excluded from the study. Second, the study only proposes and tests the applicability of Islamic equity-modes of financing contracts, namely, Musharakah and Mudarabah, while Islamic debt-based financing models are not included. Finally, as there is no practical evidence of using those models for financing MSMEs in Libya, this study lacks empirical evaluations of equity models’ real benefits on income, employment generation, living standards improvement and business growth and sustainability.Practical implicationsGiven the importance of the MSMEs sector for the State of Libya’s economic growth, it is expected that the findings of this study can be of assistance in formulating guidelines and implementing Islamic equity-based microfinance programs. Besides, it can be a valuable source of information for policymakers for improving the functions of the current microfinance programs in the country. Additionally, as studies concerning Islamic alternative models for financing MSMEs are scarce, the current study can also be a reference point for researchers, academicians, practitioners and other stakeholders.Social implicationsProviding capital support for the underfunded economy segment, attracting small savings, increasing investments and developing entrepreneurial skills could lead to improved economic productivity and growth.Originality/valueThe present study proposes the structure of Islamic equity-based microfinance models for MSMEs in Libya and verifies the suitability of those proposed models among Libyan experts. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no study has been conducted on uncovering and exploring the potentials of Islamic equity-based microfinance models for financing MSMEs in Libya.

Fascist Repression in the Italian ‘Fourth Shore’: The Special Tribunal for the Defence of the State in Libya

This article investigates the Special Tribunal for the Defence of the State (Tribunale Speciale per la Difesa dello Stato; TSDS) in the colonial territories that constitute present-day Libya at the time of fascist rule. This court acted as the judicial arm of the fascist regime in the so-called Italian ‘fourth shore’. As a tool of the repressive apparatus of the regime, it persecuted the ‘anti-national enemies’ outside the metropolitan area, striking against those who opposed the fascist dictatorship and the fascist occupation in the colony by de-legitimising the defendants on juridical, political and moral grounds. The TSDS in Libya shows that the fight against the ‘anti-nationals’ was a primary concern of Mussolini's ultranationalist regime not only in the peninsular territory but also within the colonial administration.

Mechanisms for Recovering Libyan Smuggled Assets within Framework of the United Nations Convention against Corruption: آليات استرداد الموجودات الليبية المهرَّبة في إطار اتفاقية الأمم المتحدة لمكافحة الفساد

This study aims to shed light on the mechanisms for recovering smuggled assets which established by United Nations Convention against Corruption, as well as the extent of the success of the State of Libya in this field. Moreover, the most important obstacles that face the State of Libya. Therefore, to clarify this point, the concept of recovering smuggled assets and its importance as well as the legal framework for the asset recovery have studied by using the inductive and analytical approach. For that, this study could clarify that the United Nations Convention played an important role in organizing that process, as it approved legal mechanisms governing it, represented in direct recovery, international cooperation in the field of confiscation, automatic international cooperation, and finally the recovery of assets. However, these mechanisms need a real commitment on the part of States parties to activate it. Furthermore, this study explains that the State of Libya has so far failed to recover its smuggled funds, for several different reasons; therefore, it should benefit from the successful experiences in this field.

General Dynamics United Kingdom Ltd. v. State of Libya [2021] UKSC 22, [2021] 3 WLR 231

General Dynamics United Kingdom Ltd. v. State of Libya [2021] UKSC 22, [2021] 3 WLR 231

ГЕОСТРАТЕГІЧНІ, ГЕОПОЛІТИЧНІ ТА ГЕОЕКОНОМІЧНІ ІНТЕРЕСИЗОВНІШНІХ СИЛ У ЛІВІЇ

The interests of international actors in the State of Libya in the conditions of a long civil conflict caused by the foreign intervention of 2011 are investigated. The author is convinced that all external forces have different geopolitical and geoeconomic interests, except for one common one – the desire to establish their own dominance in the Southern Mediterranean.

The expression and activity of Toll-like receptors in the preimplantation human embryo suggest a new role for innate immunity.

STUDY QUESTIONIs the innate immunity system active in early human embryo development?SUMMARY ANSWERThe pattern recognition receptors and innate immunity Toll-like receptor (TLR) genes are widely expressed in preimplantation human embryos and the pathway appears to be active in response to TLR ligands.WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADYEarly human embryos are highly sensitive to their local environment, however relatively little is known about how embryos detect and respond to specific environmental cues. While the maternal immune response is known to be key to the establishment of pregnancy at implantation, the ability of human embryos to detect and signal the presence of pathogens is unknown.STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATIONExpression of TLR family and related genes in human embryos was assessed by analysis of published transcriptome data (n = 40). Day 5 (D-5) human embryos (n = 25) were cultured in the presence of known TLR ligands and gene expression and cytokine production measured compared to controls.PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODSHuman embryos surplus to treatment requirements were donated with informed consent from several ART centres. Embryos were cultured to Day 6 (D-6) in the presence of the TLR3 and TLR5 ligands Poly (I: C) and flagellin, with gene expression measured by quantitative PCR and cytokine release into medium measured using cytometric bead arrays.MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCETLR and related genes, including downstream signalling molecules, were expressed variably at all human embryo developmental stages. Results showed the strongest expression in the blastocyst for TLRs 9 and 5, and throughout development for TLRs 9, 5, 2, 6 and 7. Stimulation of Day 5 blastocysts with TLR3 and TLR5 ligands Poly (I: C) and flagellin produced changes in mRNA expression levels of TLR genes, including the hyaluronan-mediated motility receptor (HMMR), TLR5, TLR7, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) and monocyte chemoattractant Protein-1 (MCP-1) (P < 0.05, P < 0.001 compared to unstimulated controls), and release into culture medium of cytokines and chemokines, notably IL8 (P = 0.00005 and 0.01277 for flagellin and Poly (I: C), respectively).LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTIONThis was a descriptive and experimental study which suggests that the TLR system is active in human embryos and capable of function, but does not confirm any particular role. Although we identified embryonic transcripts for a range of TLR genes, the expression patterns were not always consistent across published studies and expression levels of some genes were low, leaving open the possibility that these were expressed from the maternal rather than embryonic genome.WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGSThis is the first report of the expression and activity of a number of components of the innate immunity TLR system in human embryos. Understanding the role of TLRs during preimplantation human development may be important to reveal immunological mechanisms and potential clinical markers of embryo quality and pregnancy initiation during natural conception and in ART.STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)This work was funded by the Ministry of Higher Education, The State of Libya, the UK Medical Research Council, and the NIHR Local Comprehensive Research Network and NIHR Manchester Clinical Research Facility and the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programmes under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Grant Agreement No. 812660 (DohART-NET). In accordance with H2020 rules, no new human embryos were sacrificed for research activities performed from the EU funding, which concerned only in silico analyses of recorded time-lapse and transcriptomics datasets. None of the authors has any conflict of interest to declare.TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBERn/a.

Strategic Pause on the National Libyan Education Reform Plan: Insights &amp; Enhanced Tactics

Primarily based on the strategic pillars presented in the essential plan titled: "National Libyan Public Education Reform: Entire Transformative Strategies 2020–2026" (Published: November 2017), which proposed comprehensive bases for reforming Libyan public education as a reflection on the problems that the whole Libyan public/private education system have faced due to still-existing circumstances. It divided the entire reform strategy into six years of definite procedures designed to solve the revealed problems through gradual, ongoing actions. This essential plan was followed by a detailed executive paper on the same reverence plan titled "Contextualizing the First Two Years of the Libyan Education Reform Proposed Strategies (2020–2026): Targeted Candidates and Reflective Activities" (Published: May 2018), which explained in detail the projected (Phase I) actions of the first two years of the plan. (Phase II) of applying such a plan was explained in a paper titled "Employing the Subsequent Four Years of the Libyan Education Reform Strategy: Administrations and Contributors" (Published: January 2019), which extensively described the four executive years of the reform strategy with considerations to the constitutional laws or the existing educational regulations in the country.This associated project aimed to obtain a deeper understanding and awareness of the consequences and variables resulting from the remaining state instability for over (10) years (2011-2021) in general, and from (2017-2021) in particular, along with an assessment of the impacts of the coronavirus (COVID-19) on the whole educational system in Libya. This comprehensive work is a result of (16) months of field qualitative study (&amp;), which predominantly depended on the pillars of the suggested plan to professionally determine whether the projected National Reform Plan for the entire Libyan education system is still valuable to apply, or if it needs to be modified, developed, or even changed in some of its aspects or in one/all its phases. The significance of obtaining this field work emerged after the increase of great challenges that revealed problems faced by/facing the entire State of Libya: for instance, the effects of civil wars, a prolonged time of sharp institutional division (East and West), and a tremendous deficit (damage) in most education infrastructures and interferences, in addition to the almost non-existence of QAs, CPD, research, technology, and teaching facilities inside public schools, universities, and even in the vocational sector. This is in addition to the deep effects of the continued lack of a clear policy of education and the approximate non-existence of a clear and authentic Vision, Mission, and Goals (VMG) or sequenced tactics of leadership and lifelong learning for educators, inspectors, social workers, education administrators, TAs, and university lecturers, etc.This field study uncovered profound problems in the entire Libyan education system, which might lead to a complete collapse or major failures if it remains as it is now. It also re-verified the still-valued proposed National Libyan Public Education Reform (NLPER) strategy in combination with contemporary innovative concepts, added stakeholders, and developed tactical leadership philosophies and active crisis management techniques, all to be contained in a developed (7) years of reform strategy and tactics instead of the (6) suggested years, which will immediately take place (the updated Reform Plan) as a response to the findings of this study.

Contemporary Turkish-French Rivalry in Libya

The research represents a real attempt to show the contemporary competition and conflict that erupted between countries to control the countries that affected by The Arab Spring. Especially the oil-rich, including Libya, which has a distinguished geographical location, so this is what made France and Turkey engage in a political adventure, an economic competition, and an attempt to establish influence in Libya. The State of Libya was completely destroyed in order to control its oil, which is targeted by Western countries and their oil companies. The Turkish government tried to exploit its Islamic identity to influence the emotions of the Libyan parties and provided support for them. Then, it made an agreement with the Libyan government headed by Fayez al-Sarraj to demarcate the maritime borders, which gave it space to pressure against its opponents in the Mediterranean, after its negotiations to join the European Union failed due to France's refusal to join. The research was divided into five parts, the first dealt with contemporary Turkish-French relations, while the second one dealt with Turkey's position on the French intervention in Libya in 2011. The third one showed France's position on Turkey's accession to the European Union. The fourth one clarified the Turkish-French relations after the 2011 Libyan crisis. The fifth one included the contemporary French strategy in Libya, and finally the sixth one revolved around the impact of the Turkish-French competition on Libya. Keywords: crisis, oil, Libya, Turkey, competition, France.

Evaluation of pharmaceutical education in the State of Libya: An academic perspective

Objective: This study evaluates the quality of educational standards in the colleges of pharmacy in the State of Libya using FIP-QA framework which is made of five sections representing the five pillars of quality, namely: context, structure, process, outcomes and impact. Method: A questionnaire was constructed based on the indicators in each section of the framework. Answers were collected by distributing the questionnaire to eight colleges of pharmacy at public universities. Results: 42 out of 50 professors completed the questionnaire. Most participants believe that the context, structure and process of pharmaceutical education in Libya require significant improvement in order to comply with international standards. Conclusions: Since the impact of pharmacy education depends on the previous pillars, it is clear that the current curricula are inefficacious in producing graduates who have the competencies to exercise patient-centred roles, and to address the limitations in providing pharmaceutical care-related services.

Algorithms to Model and Optimize a Stand-Alone Photovoltaic-Diesel-Battery System: An Application in Rural Libya

Algorithms to Model and Optimize a Stand-Alone Photovoltaic-Diesel-Battery System: An Application in Rural Libya

Libya: Lost in Transition

Libya: Lost in Transition

Subtitling into ELF. When accessibility becomes a counter information tool

This study investigates the modalities by means of which the visual arts have recently been transformed by migration, and how aesthetic transformations within the context of (sub)titling have contributed to re-shaping identities and minority groups in filmic genres. The growing interest in migratory aesthetics has brought into representation marginalised subjectivities (i.e. the lives of Italians forced to emigrate from Libya after the Gadhafi coup d’etat as the case in point in this work) in ways that depart from migrant depictions in the conventional media (e.g. the news bulletins). Against the backdrop of translation as a form of re-narration and an instrument of accessibility, and drawing on Systemic Functional Linguistics as a method of survey, this study examines the (sub)titling activity in English lingua franca in what may be referred to as “accented cinema”, namely the documentary film My Home, in Libya (2018) directed by Italian filmmaker Martina Melilli. Creativity and experimentation are central to this work of art, also thanks to the use of (sub)titling procedures employed as aesthetic and linguistic devices that go beyond translation proper while covering the filmic narrative areas in terms of authorial titling and diegetic interventions. Against the normative background of subtitles in English lingua franca , (sub)titling is perceived as a practice that encourages the mediation of migrant and marginalised stories, and as a space of re-narration where screen textualities like pieces of (sub)titles give voice to characters’ inaudible thoughts.

Ali Mahmoud Hassan Mohammed (Dr Mahmoud) v. Abdulmagid Breish (Mr Breish), Hussein Mohamed Hussein Abdlmora (Dr Hussein), Mark James Shaw and Shane Michael Crooks (Receiver), the Libyan Investment Authority, Mohsen Derregia (Dr Derregia)

Governments — Status of government — Recognition — Whether particular entity to be treated as the government of a State — Role of national courts — Recognition a matter for the executive — Whether national court entitled to entertain challenge to the constitutional validity of foreign government’s acts — Nature of challenge — Whether upholding challenge would require court to inquire into status of foreign government — Libya — Revolution in 2011 — Existence of competing regimes — Whether United Kingdom Government had recognized one entity as the Government of Libya Recognition — Governments — United Kingdom policy — April 1980 Statement that United Kingdom Government would no longer make formal statements regarding recognition of foreign governments — Whether precluding statement of recognition in all circumstances — Evidence of recognition — Letters from Foreign and Commonwealth Office — Whether indicating unequivocal recognition — Libya — Competing regimes Relationship of international law and municipal law — Whether entity the government of a foreign State — Whether determination of that issue a matter for courts or government — Effect of unequivocal recognition by government of forum State — Whether courts entitled to call such recognition into question — Separation of powers — Difference from doctrines of act of State, sovereign immunity and non-justiciability — The law of England

LIBYA: Talks Marred by Divisions

LIBYA: Talks Marred by Divisions

LIBYA: Turkey to Probe Ship Search

LIBYA: Turkey to Probe Ship Search