States Of Emotional Arousal Research Articles

Depression Analysis Using Face Recognition System

Stress is a part of life it is an unpleasant state of emotional arousal that people experience in situations like working for long hours in front of a computer. Computers have become a way of life, much life is spent on computers and hence we are therefore more affected by the ups and downs that they cause us. One cannot just completely avoid their work on computers but one can at least control his/her usage when being alarmed about him being stressed at a certain point of time. Monitoring the emotional status of a person who is working in front of a computer for a longer duration is crucial for the safety of a person. In this work, a real-time non-intrusive videos are captured, which detects the emotional status of a person by analyzing the facial expression. In each frame of the video, we identify a distinct emotion and assess stress levels over consecutive hours of captured footage. Our approach involves employing a methodology enabling model training and analysis of predictive variances. Utilizing Theano, a Python framework, we enhance both execution and development times for the linear regression model, serving as the deep learning algorithm in this context. Experimental findings indicate that our system effectively performs across diverse age groups with a generic model.

Does movement preparation enhance attending to bodily sensations in the back in people with persistent low back pain?

Attention has been proposed to play an important role in persisting pain, with excessive attentional processes towards pain information leading to worse pain outcomes and maladaptive behaviors. Nevertheless, research on somatosensory attending during the anticipation of pain-related movements is still scarce. This study investigated if individuals with chronic and recurrent lower back pain compared to pain-free controls, show enhanced attending to somatosensory information in the back while anticipating back-recruiting movements. 43 healthy control, 33 recurrent (RLBP) and 33 chronic low back (CLBP) pain sufferers were asked to perform back-recruiting movements. Before the movement initiation cue, a task-irrelevant tactile stimulus was administered to participants' lower back to elicit somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs), used as an index of somatosensory attending. In contrast to our hypothesis, most identified SEP components did not differ across groups. The only exception was the P175 amplitude which was larger for the CLBP group compared to individuals with RLBP and healthy controls. The current study did not find robust evidence of enhanced somatosensory attending to the back in people with persisting lower back pain. The finding that CLBP, but not RLBP individuals, had larger amplitudes to the P175 component, is discussed as possibly reflecting a higher state of emotional arousal in these patients when having to prepare the back-recruiting movements.

The role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in control of skin sympathetic nerve activity in humans.

The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) is primarily involved in higher order executive functions, with there being evidence of lateralization. Brain imaging studies have revealed its link to the generation of skin sympathetic nerve activity (SSNA), which is elevated in states of emotional arousal or anxiety. However, no studies have directly explored dlPFC influences on SSNA. Transcranial alternating current stimulation (-2 to 2mA, 0.08Hz, 100cycles) was applied between the left or right dlPFC and nasion via surface electrodes. Spontaneous bursts of SSNA were recorded from the common peroneal nerve via a tungsten microelectrode in 21 healthy participants. The modulation index was calculated for each stimulation paradigm by constructing cross-correlation histograms between SSNA and the sinusoidal stimulus. Stimulation of the dlPFC caused significant modulation of SSNA, but there was no significant difference in the median modulation index across sides. Stimulation also caused cyclic modulation of skin blood flow and sweat release. We have shown for the first time that stimulation of the dlPFC causes modulation of SSNA, also reflected in the effector-organ responses. This supports a role for the dlPFC in the control of SSNA, which likely contributes to the ability of emotions to bring about cutaneous vasoconstriction and sweat release.

Amygdala neurocircuitry at the interface between emotional regulation and narcolepsy with cataplexy.

Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder characterized by chronic and excessive daytime sleepiness, and sudden intrusion of sleep during wakefulness that can fall into two categories: type 1 and type 2. Type 1 narcolepsy in humans is widely believed to be caused as a result of loss of neurons in the brain that contain the key arousal neuropeptide Orexin (Orx; also known as Hypocretin). Patients with type 1 narcolepsy often also present with cataplexy, the sudden paralysis of voluntary muscles which is triggered by strong emotions (e.g., laughter in humans, social play in dogs, and chocolate in rodents). The amygdala is a crucial emotion-processing center of the brain; however, little is known about the role of the amygdala in sleep/wake and narcolepsy with cataplexy. A collection of reports across human functional neuroimaging analyses and rodent behavioral paradigms points toward the amygdala as a critical node linking emotional regulation to cataplexy. Here, we review the existing evidence suggesting a functional role for the amygdala network in narcolepsy, and build upon a framework that describes relevant contributions from the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA), basolateral amygdala (BLA), and the extended amygdala, including the bed nucleus of stria terminalis (BNST). We propose that detailed examinations of amygdala neurocircuitry controlling transitions between emotional arousal states may substantially advance progress in understanding the etiology of narcolepsy with cataplexy, leading to enhanced treatment opportunities.

Infrared thermography for non-invasive measurement of social inequality aversion in rodents and potential usefulness for future animal-friendly studies.

Infrared thermography is a method that detects thermal radiation energy and can measure the body surface temperature of animals from a distance. While rectal temperature has traditionally been used to measure animals' core temperature, thermal imaging can avoid the stress and potential rise of body temperature deriving from handling of the animals. Additionally, being non-invasive and contactless, thermal imaging allows free movement of the animals. The validity of this technique as a psychophysiological method has been proven in a series of stress-induced hyperthermia (SIH) studies of mice under social inequality conditions. Restraint in a holder elicits SIH in mice. A restrained mouse surrounded by freely moving cage mates displays increased SIH suggesting that social inequality enhances the stress. Social inequality can be examined also in unrestrained mice, in particular through unequal distribution of food. In this protocol, a food-deprived mouse is given a small piece of cheese, while its cage mate is given a large piece of cheese. This inequity causes SIH, suggesting social inequality aversion in mice. Thus, social inequality in different situations similarly increased SIH. Importantly, in future studies infrared thermography could also be used to evaluate emotional arousal states different from stress (for example to assess reactivity to rewards or in social and sexual preference tests). Moreover, the technique could be used to investigate also cognitive arousal induced by novelty. Indeed, infrared thermography could be a particularly useful tool for animal-friendly studies of cognition and emotion in rodents.

Modulation of Driver's Emotional States by Manipulating In-Vehicle Environment: Validation With Biosignals Recorded in An Actual Car Environment

A driver's emotional state can affect driving performance. According to the studies on the driving performance based on the circumplex (arousal-valence) model of affect, negative emotions such as anger and sadness can severely hinder safe driving. In this study, we developed a system to modulate drivers’ emotions to designated emotional states by manipulating in-vehicle environments, such as ambient lighting, background music, scent, ventilation, and rear curtains. The proposed system, named the “mood-modulator” system, consists of four different modes, designed to induce different emotional states. The feasibility of the “mood-modulator” system was evaluated using electroencephalogram (EEG) and photoplethysmogram (PPG) signals recorded from 48 drivers in an actual car environment. In the experiments, negative emotions were induced for each participant using short movie clips. Then, one of the four modes (different in-vehicle environments) was executed, during which both EEG and PPG data were acquired. We quantitatively evaluated whether each mode could effectively induce targeted emotional valence using machine learning classifier models, individually constructed from EEG data recorded during calibration sessions. The modulation of emotional arousal by each mode was also assessed using heart rate and respiration rate extracted from the PPG data. Our results demonstrated that the four modes could effectively increase the participant's emotional valence and modulate emotional arousal state to the intended direction. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to quantitatively evaluate a system that modulates a driver's emotional state using biosignals recorded in an actual car.

Research on Ecological Landscape Design and Healing Effect Based on 3D Roaming Technology.

Impacted by the COVID-19 epidemic, the human sub-health in national high-tech zones (hereinafter referred to as high-tech zones) has become more prominent. It is critical for the mental sub-health group in the high-tech zone to relieve the anxiety and tension caused by the pressure of life and work. This paper uses SketchUp virtual engine (Unity 2019) software, and 3D roaming technology to carry out the ecological landscape transformation design of the Baotzixi ecological corridor in the East Lake High-tech Zone, to construct a 3D roaming landscape scene and measure its therapeutic effect by inviting subjects to participate in an interactive experience experiment on the ErgoLAB platform. The results illustrate that: (1) the thermogram trend shows that the more attractive the 3D roaming landscape scene is, the stronger the subjects’ interest is; (2) the participants have a positive emotional arousal state in the immersive experience of the 3D roaming landscape scene after the modification design; and (3) the mean skin conductance (SC) fluctuation variance of the subjects is 5.819%, indicating that the healing effect is significant in the state of positive emotional arousal. The research results show that there is a connection between the subjects and the 3D roaming landscape scene after the transformation design of “high interest, emotional arousal and significant healing”.

Alexithymia disrupts emotion regulation processes and is associated with greater negative affect and alcohol problems

Alexithymia is common among people who abuse alcohol, yet the mechanisms by which alexithymia exerts its influence remain unclear. This analysis tested a model whereby the three subscales of the Toronto Alexithymia Scale exert an indirect effect on alcohol problems through difficulties with emotion regulation and psychological distress. Men and women (n = 141) seeking alcohol use disorder (AUD) treatment completed the Toronto Alexithymia Scale, the Difficulties with Emotion Regulation Scale, the Brief Symptom Inventory, the Short Inventory of Problems, and the Alcohol Dependence Scale. The Difficulty Identifying Feelings subscale of the Toronto Alexithymia Scale was positively associated with alcohol problems through emotion dysregulation and psychological distress. The other two subscales, Difficulty Describing Feelings and Externally oriented Thinking, were not associated with any other variables. People with alexithymia may consume alcohol to help regulate undifferentiated states of emotional arousal. Given the prevalence of alexithymia among people who abuse alcohol, treatment supplements that enhance the identification of emotions are needed.

ЭЛЕКТРОФИЗИОЛОГИЧЕСКОЕ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЕ ОСЦИЛЛЯТОРНОЙ АКТИВНОСТИ МОЗГА ОБЕЗЬЯН MACACA MULATTA

It is well known that rhythmic light stimulation can alter the electrical activity of the human and animal brain. Moreover, the brain response to certain flicker frequencies significantly exceeds the responses to neighboring frequencies. This phenomenon is thought to be related with the effect of resonance, as evidenced by the coincidence of one of the maxima in the profile of the response to flashes with the frequency of the alpha rhythm. However, other frequencies that cause an increased response to flashes are not reflected in electroencephalogram (EEG) as dominant oscillations. The goal of this study was to reveal the relationship between local maxima in the profile of the responses to flashes of different frequencies and dominant brain oscillations recorded in electrocorticogram (ECoG) of rhesus monkeys without stimulation. The study was carried out on four male Macaca mulatta individuals. In three animals, peak responses were elicited by flickers at 8 and 16 Hz, while one monkey showed a second peak in the 22−30 Hz range. The first maximum (8−10 Hz) in the profile of the response to rhythmic photostimulation coincided with the dominant rhythm recorded in the occipital and parietal regions at rest. The second maximum at 16 Hz coincided with the dominant ECoG rhythm in one of the primates when it was in the state of emotional arousal, which may account for the resonant origin of the increase in responses in this frequency range. The data obtained indicate that dominant brain rhythms, including latent rhythms revealed only by rhythmic photostimulation, can coincide in frequency in monkeys and humans. Neuronal mechanisms of selective sensitivity of neural networks to different frequencies of photostimulation are discussed.

Perceived maternal care is associated with emotional eating in young adults

IntroductionEarly life adversity, including the perception of poor quality of maternal care, is associated with long-term metabolic and psychosocial consequences. The negative quality of mother/child relationship is associated with emotional overeating in young children, which is defined by eating in response to emotional arousal states such as fear, anger or anxiety. However, it is not known if this association persists through adolescence. Therefore, we aimed at verifying if maternal care during infancy can influence emotional eating in young adults. MethodsSeventy-five adolescents, residents of Porto Alegre, who participated in the PROTAIA Program (anxiety disorder in childhood and adolescence program), answered the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI – assessment of perceived maternal care), and the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire (DEBQ). Regression analysis models were built to predict Emotional Eating, a domain of the DEBQ, using maternal care, gender, and anxiety as independent variables. ResultsThe model was statistically significant when adjusted for potential confounders (r2 = 0.272; p < 0.0001). Emotional eating was significantly predicted by levels of maternal care, anxiety and gender (beta = −0.316; p = 0.006). ConclusionThe results demonstrated a negative association between the quality of maternal care and emotional eating in young adults, suggesting that the early environment could be involved on the development of eating disorders or on the differential eating behavior in adolescents with emotional disorders.

"The impact of uncertain threat on affective bias: Individual differences in response to ambiguity": Correction.

Reports an error in "The impact of uncertain threat on affective bias: Individual differences in response to ambiguity" by Maital Neta, Julie Cantelon, Zachary Haga, Caroline R. Mahoney, Holly A. Taylor and F. Caroline Davis (Emotion, 2017[Dec], Vol 17[8], 1137-1143). In this article, the copyright attribution was incorrectly listed under the Creative Commons CC-BY license due to production-related error. The correct copyright should be "In the public domain." The online version of this article has been corrected. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2017-40275-001.) Individuals who operate under highly stressful conditions (e.g., military personnel and first responders) are often faced with the challenge of quickly interpreting ambiguous information in uncertain and threatening environments. When faced with ambiguity, it is likely adaptive to view potentially dangerous stimuli as threatening until contextual information proves otherwise. One laboratory-based paradigm that can be used to simulate uncertain threat is known as threat of shock (TOS), in which participants are told that they might receive mild but unpredictable electric shocks while performing an unrelated task. The uncertainty associated with this potential threat induces a state of emotional arousal that is not overwhelmingly stressful, but has widespread-both adaptive and maladaptive-effects on cognitive and affective function. For example, TOS is thought to enhance aversive processing and abolish positivity bias. Importantly, in certain situations (e.g., when walking home alone at night), this anxiety can promote an adaptive state of heightened vigilance and defense mobilization. In the present study, we used TOS to examine the effects of uncertain threat on valence bias, or the tendency to interpret ambiguous social cues as positive or negative. As predicted, we found that heightened emotional arousal elicited by TOS was associated with an increased tendency to interpret ambiguous cues negatively. Such negative interpretations are likely adaptive in situations in which threat detection is critical for survival and should override an individual's tendency to interpret ambiguity positively in safe contexts. (PsycINFO Database Record

The impact of uncertain threat on affective bias: Individual differences in response to ambiguity.

Individuals who operate under highly stressful conditions (e.g., military personnel and first responders) are often faced with the challenge of quickly interpreting ambiguous information in uncertain and threatening environments. When faced with ambiguity, it is likely adaptive to view potentially dangerous stimuli as threatening until contextual information proves otherwise. One laboratory-based paradigm that can be used to simulate uncertain threat is known as threat of shock (TOS), in which participants are told that they might receive mild but unpredictable electric shocks while performing an unrelated task. The uncertainty associated with this potential threat induces a state of emotional arousal that is not overwhelmingly stressful, but has widespread-both adaptive and maladaptive-effects on cognitive and affective function. For example, TOS is thought to enhance aversive processing and abolish positivity bias. Importantly, in certain situations (e.g., when walking home alone at night), this anxiety can promote an adaptive state of heightened vigilance and defense mobilization. In the present study, we used TOS to examine the effects of uncertain threat on valence bias, or the tendency to interpret ambiguous social cues as positive or negative. As predicted, we found that heightened emotional arousal elicited by TOS was associated with an increased tendency to interpret ambiguous cues negatively. Such negative interpretations are likely adaptive in situations in which threat detection is critical for survival and should override an individual's tendency to interpret ambiguity positively in safe contexts. (PsycINFO Database Record

Dogs and humans respond to emotionally competent stimuli by producing different facial actions

The commonality of facial expressions of emotion has been studied in different species since Darwin, with most of the research focusing on closely related primate species. However, it is unclear to what extent there exists common facial expression in species more phylogenetically distant, but sharing a need for common interspecific emotional understanding. Here we used the objective, anatomically-based tools, FACS and DogFACS (Facial Action Coding Systems), to quantify and compare human and domestic dog facial expressions in response to emotionally-competent stimuli associated with different categories of emotional arousal. We sought to answer two questions: Firstly, do dogs display specific discriminatory facial movements in response to different categories of emotional stimuli? Secondly, do dogs display similar facial movements to humans when reacting in emotionally comparable contexts? We found that dogs displayed distinctive facial actions depending on the category of stimuli. However, dogs produced different facial movements to humans in comparable states of emotional arousal. These results refute the commonality of emotional expression across mammals, since dogs do not display human-like facial expressions. Given the unique interspecific relationship between dogs and humans, two highly social but evolutionarily distant species sharing a common environment, these findings give new insight into the origin of emotion expression.

Patients with bulimia nervosa do not show typical neurodevelopment of cognitive control under emotional influences

Bulimia nervosa (BN) emerges in the late teen years and is characterized by binge eating and related compensatory behaviors. These behaviors often co-occur with periods of negative affect suggesting an association between emotions and control over eating behavior. In the current study, we examined how cognitive control and neural processes change under emotional states of arousal in 46 participants with (n=19) and without (n=27) BN from the ages of 18–33 years. Participants performed a go/nogo task consisting of brief negative, positive and neutral emotional cues and sustained negative, positive and neutral emotional states of arousal during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Overall task performance improved with age for healthy participants, but not for patients with BN. These age-dependent behavioral effects were paralleled by diminished recruitment of prefrontal control circuitry in patients with BN with age. Although patients with BN showed no difference in performance on the experimental manipulations of negative emotions, sustained positive emotions related to improved performance among patients with BN. Together the findings highlight a neurodevelopmental approach towards understanding markers of psychopathology and suggest that sustained positive affect may have potential therapeutic effects on maintaining behavioral control in BN.

Emotional arousal state influences the ability of amygdalar endocannabinoid signaling to modulate anxiety

Systemic activation of cannabinoid receptors often induces biphasic effects on emotional memory and anxiety depending on the levels of emotional arousal associated to the experimental context. The basolateral nucleus of the amygdala (BLA) represents a crucial structure for the ability of endocannabinoid (eCB) signaling to modulate emotional behaviour, and receives dense projections from brainstem arousal system nuclei. We examined whether changes in emotional arousal state would influence the ability of acute eCB manipulations within the BLA to modulate anxiety. Rats were tested in an elevated plus maze (EPM) under low or high arousal conditions. The low emotional arousal group was extensively handled and habituated to the experimental room and tested under red light condition, the high emotional arousal group was not handled or habituated and tested under high light condition. We examined amygdalar eCB anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) levels immediately after the EPM and the effects of intra-BLA administration of the AEA hydrolysis inhibitor URB597 or the 2-AG hydrolysis inhibitor KML29 on anxiety behaviour. The modulation of anxiety-like behaviour by eCBs in the BLA was strictly dependent on the environmental-associated emotional arousal. Pharmacologically-induced elevations of AEA or 2-AG in the BLA decreased anxiety under conditions of low emotional arousal. Conversely, when the level of emotional arousal increased, local eCB manipulation was ineffective in the modulation of the emotional arousal-induced anxiety response. These findings suggest that, depending on the emotional arousal state, eCB system is differentially activated to regulate the anxiety response in the amygdala and help to understand the state-dependency of many interventions on anxiety.

The Impact of Emotional States on Cognitive Control Circuitry and Function.

Typically in the laboratory, cognitive and emotional processes are studied separately or as a stream of fleeting emotional stimuli embedded within a cognitive task. Yet in life, thoughts and actions often occur in more lasting emotional states of arousal. The current study examines the impact of emotions on actions using a novel behavioral paradigm and functional neuroimaging to assess cognitive control under sustained states of threat (anticipation of an aversive noise) and excitement (anticipation of winning money). Thirty-eight healthy adult participants were scanned while performing an emotional go/no-go task with positive (happy faces), negative (fearful faces), and neutral (calm faces) emotional cues, under threat or excitement. Cognitive control performance was enhanced during the excited state relative to a nonarousing control condition. This enhanced performance was paralleled by heightened activity of frontoparietal and frontostriatal circuitry. In contrast, under persistent threat, cognitive control was diminished when the valence of the emotional cue conflicted with the emotional state. Successful task performance in this conflicting emotional condition was associated with increased activity in the posterior cingulate cortex, a default mode network region implicated in complex processes such as processing emotions in the context of self and monitoring performance. This region showed positive coupling with frontoparietal circuitry implicated in cognitive control, providing support for a role of the posterior cingulate cortex in mobilizing cognitive resources to improve performance. These findings suggest that emotional states of arousal differentially modulate cognitive control and point to the potential utility of this paradigm for understanding effects of situational and pathological states of arousal on behavior.

The Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire: Further psychometric validation and clinical implications of the French version in normal weight and obese persons

This study tested the psychometric properties of the French version of the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire (DEBQ) for normal weight and obese patients; determined the factors associated with each DEBQ score: emotional eating (eating in response to emotional arousal states such as fear, anger or anxiety), externality (eating in response to external food cues such as sight and smell of food), and restrained eating behavior/cognitive restraint (conscious efforts to limit and control dietary intake); and determined how to interpret the results from this scale to guide clinical practice. Between January 2009 and April 2009, we assessed non-paired normal weight persons (n=74) and all consecutive obese patients consulting in the Nutrition Ward of the University Hospital of Tours (n=75; including bariatric surgery patients) using the DEBQ. We tested the scale's factor structure using a factor analysis for ordinal data and internal consistency for each DEBQ dimension. Our results supported a three-factor structure for both normal weight and obese patients. The Cronbach's alpha coefficients were excellent for emotional eating and externality (α≥0.90) and good for cognitive restraint (α≥0.81). The emotional eating and cognitive restraint scores were higher for women (P<0.001) and obese patients (P<0.05). Higher cognitive restraint was associated with higher current and previous BMI (P<0.01). For patients who had bariatric surgery, higher length of time since surgery was significantly associated with higher externality (ρ=0.359; P≤0.05) and marginally associated with higher cognitive restraint (ρ=0.294; P=0.10) and higher emotional eating (ρ=0.302; P=0.10). Our results support a three-dimensional factor structure for the French version of the DEBQ for normal weight and obese patients. We propose the chance to change hypothesis to explain results for bariatric surgery patients: patients experience a beneficial but transient decrease in externality, emotionality and cognitive restraint, and this period of time gives the patient a chance for cognitive, behavioral and emotional change. This critical period should be well prepared before surgery to improve the patient's postoperative success, by tackling each factor that could diminish the chances for success as soon as possible (e.g., early screening and treatment for psychiatric disorders).

Emotional climate and high quality learning experiences in science teacher education

The role of emotion during learning encounters in science teacher education is under-researched and under-theorized. In this case study, we explore the emotional climates (ECs), that is, the collective states of emotional arousal, of a preservice secondary science education class to illuminate practice for producing and reproducing high quality learning experiences for preservice science teachers. Theories related to the sociology of emotions informed our analyses from data sources such as preservice teachers' perceptions of the EC of their class, emotional facial expressions, classroom conversations, and cogenerative dialogue. The major outcome from our analyses was that even though preservice teachers reported high positive EC during the professor's science demonstrations, they also valued the professor's in the moment reflections on her teaching that were associated with low EC ratings. We co-relate EC data and preservice teachers' comments during cogenerative dialogue to expand our understanding of high quality experiences and EC in science teacher education. Our study also contributes refinements to research perspectives on EC. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 51: 1301–1325, 2014.

Emotional vulnerability and cognitive control in patients with bipolar disorder and their healthy siblings: a pilot study.

Scheuch K, Bräunig P, Gauggel S, Kliesow K, Sarkar R, Krüger S. Emotional vulnerability and cognitive control in patients with bipolar disorder and their healthy siblings: a pilot study. There is evidence that, even in remission, patients with bipolar disorder (BD) have deficits in cognitive function and emotional regulation. Siblings of patients with BD are also reported to exhibit minor dysfunction in neuropsychological domains. In this study, we examined the interference of acute mood state with reaction time (RT) and response inhibition in euthymic patients with BD, in their healthy siblings and in healthy controls. A total of 34 patients with bipolar I disorder, 22 healthy siblings and 33 healthy controls performed a stop-signal paradigm after induction of a transient intense sadness and a relaxed mood state. The differences in RT and the response inhibition were compared between the groups. Euthymic patients with BD displayed a higher emotional reactivity compared with their siblings and with controls. Compared with controls, patients with BD showed longer RTs in a relaxed mood state and a delay in response inhibition during emotional activation. The present study provides evidence for the clinical observation that patients with BD have shorter RTs when in a state of emotional arousal rather than in a relaxed state. Inhibitory deficits in these patients may be because of a too strong emotional arousal. The results show that in patients with BD, relaxation and emotional arousal are inversely associated with performance in a neuropsychological task. This is in contrast to findings in healthy individuals suggesting a dysbalance in emotional regulation in these patients.

‘Hearts on their sleeves’: the use of systemic biofeedback in school settings

This article describes how a biofeedback device is used to ‘externalize’ internal physiological states. Heart rate monitors, emitting audible signals when a specific threshold is reached, are fitted to children and members of the family. This can help all those present to make connections between problematic behaviours and internal states of emotional/physical arousal. Devices may be worn for up to twenty‐four hours and computer graph printouts of fluctuating heart rates can assist in contextualizing problematic interactions, particularly if other family members are also fitted with heart rate monitors. In this way biofeedback becomes ‘systemic’ as people are alerted to the interconnectedness of each others’ states. Participants are not only helped to identify stressors leading to heightened states of emotional arousal and resulting ‘out‐of‐control’ behaviours, but also to find ways of employing (self‐)calming strategies. This article outlines the application of systemic biofeedback in school settings with children at risk of exclusion. With the help of these biofeedback devices pupils begin to manage themselves in situations which would previously have resulted in stressed, angry or violent behaviours.