Central Asian States Research Articles

US Engagement with Central Asia (1991-2021)

After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, US interests in the newly independent states of Central Asia were somewhat limited. However, with new developments, the region strategically became important for the US. The main reasons are the energy resources of Central Asia, the region's strategic geographical location, US involvement in Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) and post NATO/US army exit situation in the region and Afghanistan and the threat of reemergence of Taliban. It seems that the US followed a policy of democracy,human rights, the rule of law and development but at the same time had military bases in CARs to keep an eye over Afghanistan and neighboring regions. However, there is a shift in regional dynamics, which will not allow the US to keep its hold over the region. This research work divided the US policy in the Central Asian region into different periods, which are the post-Soviet era, post 9/11, post-2014 and post-US army exit from Afghanistan 2021.

СТАНОВЛЕНИЕ КАЗАХСКОГО ХАНСТВА:НОВЫЙ ВЗГЛЯД НА ИСТОРИЮ

The Kazakh Khanate, formed by the Kazakh people led by the khans Kerey and Zhanibek in 1465, did not appear overnight. Its origins goback to the depths of centuries –the history of our statehood, which has 2.5 millennia and begins with the nomadic Saks. In the formation of statehood in the steppe zone, both the general laws of the historical process and the features characteristic of a nomadic society were reflected. In the XIV-XV centuries the process of addition of the Kazakh people was completed. The very name "Kazak", which has undergone a complex transformation from its original social meaning to ethnic content, becomes the name of the people. The entry of the emerging Kazakh people into different states –the Ak Orda, the Khanate of Abulkhair, Moghulistan, the Nogai Horde and the Siberian Khanate; continuous wars, strife between Genghisides and the nobility, coupled with growing external aggression, led to the idea of the need to unite ethnically close groups into a single state. These circumstances became the reasons for the creation of the Kazakh state proper. Ethno-political and socio-cultural processes on the territory of Kazakhstan in the XIV-XV centuries became the result of the emergence of the Kazakh Khanate in 1465.One of the largest and most influential states of Central and Central Asia in the Middle Ages was the Kazakh Khanate. In modern times, the Kazakh Khanate ceased to exist as an independent unit on the political map of the world, however, the achievements it has accumulated in the field of administration, legislation, regulation of public relations, foreign policy and diplomacy have a huge impact on modern Kazakhstan. The article also focuses on the personalities of the prominent khans of the Kazakh Khanate, who played a crucial role in the centuries-old life of the Kazakh people.

Strategic guidelines of resource policy in agricultural sector of the PRC

The goal is to study the guidelines in implementation of the resource policy of the PRC and its features. Research methods – analytical, which allows to reveal the problems of agriculture; comparative analysis of sectoral structure of agricultural sector with a characteristic predominance of crop production industry: areas of agricultural land located on a large territory, arable land, use of land resources; based on the cause-and-effect method, animal productivity, crop yields are shown. The originality/value of the study – two concepts: the Silk Road Economic Belt and the XXI Century Maritime Silk Road, called the "One Belt and One Road" initiative, which are acquiring special significance in development and prospects of Eurasia. This transcontinental long-term policy and investment program, which is proclaimed in China as the "project of the century", covers many countries and is aimed at building trade relations between China, Russia, the states of Central Asia, Europe and the coastal states of the Indo-Pacific region. Results – the authors state that the solution of economic objectives of Kazakhstan and, in particular, agroindustrial complex is also very important as solution of similar problems in the PRC. Increasing the efficiency of agricultural production, creating a reserve of food security and necessary conditions for products sales are problematic topics for both sides. Conclusions – the deepening of Chinese-Kazakhstani bilateral cooperation in the field of AIC is growing rapidly and is becoming one of the key factors in interstate economic cooperation, contributing to the inflow of investments from China and diversification of the economy.

Silence is golden? Silences as strategic narratives in Central Asian states' response to the Ukrainian crisis

AbstractIn this article, we argue that Central Asian (CA) states' approach to the Ukrainian crisis should be defined as strategic silence. Such foreign policy reflects how CA's ideological and geographic factors and a shared information space, largely dominated by Russian and Russian-language media, facilitate the understanding of historical continuity among Russian and CA leaders. However, we also demonstrate that CA public officials' and general public's uses of strategic silence reflect the complicated reality of CA states. Their leaders and populations are cognizant of both their dependence on educational and labor opportunities in Russia and their necessity for postwar coexistence with Russia, China, and other states that are not sympathetic to the intentions of the European Union/USA in CA. Therefore, strategic silence is an approach for CA states to voice their disagreement with Russia's approach to Ukraine while avoiding being victimized by Russia and its allies for an openly anti-war stance.

Valentin Feliksovich VOINO-YASENETSKY - Archbishop, professor-surgeon. To the 145th of birthday

Valentin Feliksovich VOINO-YASENETSKY - Archbishop, professor-surgeon. To the 145th of birthday

GEOPOLITICAL AND ECONOMIC INTERESTS OF THE USA AND PRC IN CENTRAL ASIA

The article discusses the implementation of US foreign policy, proceeding from the fundamental values ​​declared by them, features of the processes of “promoting democracy” at the present stage, and new risks (real and potential) of regional security. Predictions of further actions by the PRC in Central Asia are also given, with options for the development of future events in the region being analyzed in conjunction with a possible US reaction to them. This article is an attempt to analyze the economic interests of China and the United States in Central Asian states. Today, when there has been a full geopolitical struggle in the region, it is advisable to consider the economic interests of the world powers concentrated here and determine how much they contradict or complement each other.

Natural resources, human capital, and CO2 emissions: Missing evidence from the Central Asian States.

There are papers on association about natural resources, economic expansion, and their effect on the quality of the environment in Central Asia. However, no study has investigated the effect of human capital in this nexus concerning the Central Asian states. Thus this study investigates the link between natural resources, economic expansion, human capital, and CO2 in Central Asian states by employing Pooled Mean Group (PMG) and the Dumitrescu and Hurlin (DH) causality tests from 1995 to 2018. The outcomes from the PMG model showed that human capital has an opposite and significant association with CO2 in the short and long run. Therefore, it is stated that local human capital with higher environmental awareness through education and training makes a positive impact on environmental quality. With the growth of the natural resources index and expansion of the economy, Central Asian emissions will rise. With a positive and substantial coefficient of the natural resources, the finding suggests that, even though Central Asian states have plenty of natural resources, they are unable to exploit them efficiently to reap good rent advantages to reduce the emissions. The outcomes of the causality test stated that the index of natural resources, economic expansion, and human capital have one-way causality with emissions. The important policies and recommendations for maintaining the economic and environmental sustainability of this country are provided at the end of this paper.

Central Asia in the US Strategy: Semantic Analysis

The article discusses the US strategy in Central Asia on the basis of an extremely accepted document. The method of semantic text analysis will be applied. An attempt is made to compare the lexical analysis and the context of the strategy with the real US policy in Central Asia. The mechanism of semantic analysis is described. The main problem of the research is the processing and interpretation of mathematical data. They reflect the results of semantic analysis of the strategy text.  The foreign policy strategy contains the official plans of the state in relation to the region.  The main part and the rationale for the application of the strategy in the region are analyzed. It describes the main interests of the United States in Central Asia, projects and vision of joint cooperation. The goals and objectives adopted in the document for the near future are determined. Their implementation depends on the activity of the United States and the desire of regional partners to cooperate. Special emphasis is placed on the security of the region and the situation in Afghanistan. During the transformation of the political system, it is important to determine the algorithm of cooperation between Central Asia and the United States. The results of semantic analysis allow the use of information mathematical data and their interpretation in the analysis of the main provisions of the strategy. The conclusions can be useful when comparing with the ongoing events of real politics in the region. Keywords: US strategy, Central Asia region, semantic analysis, goals, security, Afghanistan  

The impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on the international labor market

Introduction. The COVID-19 pandemic has led to significant changes in labor markets around the world. Extraordinary political efforts have been made to overcome the effects of the corona crisis. Governments, together with trade unions, have taken immediate action to address the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic, including the protection of jobs, including financial support for businesses and households experiencing sharp declines in income.Purpose. Justify the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the international labor market.Methods. The following methods were used in the research process: decomposition – to form the purpose of the research and set tasks; theoretical and methodological – to reveal the theoretical aspects of the international labor market; economic analysis – to study the regional and sectoral aspects of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the international labor market; synthesis, comparison, analogy – to study the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic for regional labor markets; logical generalization – to identify problems in the functioning of the international labor market caused by the COVID-19 pandemic; graphical method – to visualize the results of the study.Results. The COVID-19 pandemic has had a negative impact on the participation of the population in the labor force, reducing employment in all regions of the world with different income levels, both men and women, as well as increasing unemployment. Empirical analysis has shown that the greatest decline in employment among both men and women is observed in countries with incomes below and above average. In 2020, compared to 2019, the total working time in the world decreased by about 8.8 %, which is equivalent to the full-time work of 255 million employees. The loss of working time was particularly severe in Latin America and the Caribbean (16.2 %), Southern Europe and South Asia, and the total loss of working time in North and South America was 13.7 %. Overall, the COVID-19 crisis affected global working hours by about four times more than the global economic crisis of 2008-2009. The decline in employment was highest in the United States and lowest in Europe and Central Asia, where working hours were offset by job retention schemes. Many people have become inactive in the labor market because they did not see the opportunity to find a job successfully or simply could not search for it due to quarantine restrictions caused by the spread of the global pandemic. It should be noted that in high-income countries the unemployment rate in the period 2019-2020 (2.0 %) was very close to that observed in the period 2008-2009 (2.1 %). The female part of the working population suffered more from the decline in employment than the male. Young workers in all regions and groups of countries were particularly affected by the 2020 crisis, which led to a reduction in their employment by 8.7% compared to 3.7% among adults.Discussion. The COVID-19 pandemic has hit businesses and the informal economy hardest. Most informal enterprises are characterized by low productivity, low savings and investment, and scarce capital accumulation, which makes them particularly vulnerable to financial and economic shocks. Most workers could not afford to stop working because it would mean that they would not be able to meet their basic needs (such as food). Where markets and trading floors were closed during a harsh lockdown or curfew, the incomes of many informal workers, especially street vendors, disappeared instantly, putting them at risk of access to food. Informal homeworkers who produce goods or services for local, national or global supply systems have lost commercial orders from customer companies and in many cases have not been able to get paid for previously executed orders. Refugees and migrant workers have also been particularly affected by the economic consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic. They are mainly concentrated in sectors with high levels of temporary, informal or unprotected employment, characterized by low wages and lack of social protection. For many migrants, losing their job not only directly affects their own income, but also reduces their remittances. The post-pandemic period will be a time of building the future by creating new jobs, but this will only happen if effective labor market policies are implemented at both the national and global levels.

Features of the distribution of Islam in Central Asia (on the example of Uzbekistan)

During the years of independence, research on the problems of Islam and Islamic culture has intensified in Uzbekistan. Large-scale work is being carried out to preserve and develop the national spiritual culture, values, and traditions. And the purpose of this article is to study the spread of Islam in the Central Asian region, in particular in Uzbekistan. The processes that took place on the Arabian Peninsula, which led to the emergence of Islam and the creation of a huge theocratic state - the Arab Caliphate, which began to conquer the Central Asian states from the second half of the 7th century, are analyzed. Four stages of the aggressive policy are revealed, differing in duration, goals and results. Four stages of the aggressive policy are revealed, differing in duration, goals and results. It is noted that the Arab Caliphate viewed the conquest of Maverannahr as one of the richest sources of its income. Although the prophet Muhammad officially undertook these campaigns to neighboring countries with the ideological goal of spreading Islam. The reasons for the victories of the Arabs over the local population are analyzed. The author sees the main reason not only in the strength of the Arabs, but also in the fact that the occupied countries were distinguished by political, social, cultural fragmentation, the presence of acute economic problems. Central Asia was divided into many small states and was not able to provide a tough, serious rebuff to the Arabs. The conquest of Central Asia by the Arabs, which lasted almost a hundred years, ended in the 1930s and 1940s. 8th centuryThe Arabs behaved like conquerors - they robbed, took away decent dwellings, evicted their owners from their homes, robbed artisans, destroyed irrigation systems, as a result of which the lands turned into deserts. These actions and the brutal forms of exploitation of the population by the Arabs led to uprisings. The uprising led by Mukanna is described. There were other popular liberation movements. This shows that the spread of Islam has passed a long and thorny path. Islam is the dominant religion in Uzbekistan today. Keywords: Arab conquest, Caliphate, monotheistic religion, Prophet Muhammad, Maverannahr

REGIONAL COOPERATION IN THE FOREIGN POLICY OF CENTRAL ASIAN STATES

The article analyzes the social, historical and political aspects of social cooperation and integration between the Central Asian states. Attempts at integration between the countries of the region in the post-independence years, their successes and shortcomings have been studied. Special attention is paid to the resumption and development of regional cooperation.

THE VISIT OF IGNATYEV NIKOLAI PAVLOVICH IN 1858 AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN THE HISTORY OF EMBASSY RELATIONS OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE WITH THE KHIVA KHANATE

In this article, the author examines the specifics of embassy relations between the Russian Empire and the Khiva Khanate, the traditions and labels that have developed in the diplomatic relations of the two countries, as well as the state of mutual embassy exchange in the middle of the 19th century highlights the mutual analysis of information in the memoirs written by the ambassadors of the urban period. In addition, the example of the embassy headed by N. Ignatyev, who visited Khiva in 1858, reveals that the issue of the embassy became an important political process at a time when the interests of the Russian Empire and Great Britain clashed in Central Asia in the 1950s. The interference of other Central Asian states, such as the Bukhara Emirate and the Kokand Khanate, in the embassy affairs of the Russian Empire with the Khiva Khanate is also a clear feature of the diplomacy of this period. Historical, logical, analytical and synthesis methods were used.

PAKISTAN'S INTERESTS IN THE CENTRAL ASIAN REGION: DYNAMICS OF COOPERATION

This article examines the relationships between Pakistan and the countries of Central Asia. It is emphasized that since independence, the Central Asian states have acquired the attention of regional and global powers. Geographically, this region is landlocked but very rich in natural resources. At the same time, it is noted that due to the lack of energy resources, Islamabad needs to develop cooperation with the countries of Central Asia. From geostrategic point of view, Pakistan provides these regional states the shortest route to global sea trade. Special attention is paid to energy and transport-logical cooperation between Pakistan and Central Asian countries.

THE ROLE OF UZBEK-PAKISTANI RELATIONS IN CONNECTING THE CENTRAL AND SOUTH ASIAN REGIONS

The article analyzes the political aspects of establishing and developing relations between the Republic of Uzbekistan and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, as well as the impact of the transformation of cooperation between the two states in recent years on the relationship between the states of Central and South Asia.

Pipelines and Power Lines: China, Infrastructure and the Geopolitical (Re)construction of Central Asia

ABSTRACT This article examines the role of pipelines and power lines in the (re)construction of regional energy order in Central Asia. By structuring and governing social relations across space, infrastructures are integral to region building. In Central Asia, despite the post-Soviet transition, Soviet infrastructures have perpetuated Russian control over regional energy exports, hampered Central Asian states’ development and caused regional tension. China’s construction of pipelines and power lines represented a renegotiation of spatial, economic and political relations in the region. By connecting China with Central Asian states, the pipelines secured an alternative source of energy supply for Beijing, strengthened regional states’ independence from Russian influence, and embedded them in new structures of interdependent relations with the rising power. Meanwhile, by connecting local facilities and supplying energy to less developed areas, the Chinese-built pipelines and power lines enhanced Central Asian states’ capacity, promoted integration of national territories, and reduced region tension over water and energy supply. Notwithstanding these changes, Chinese-built pipelines and power lines did not overthrow the existing regional order. Rather than replacing Soviet systems, they were additions that connected with and remained embedded in the existing infrastructures.

Online Discourses in Post-Soviet Media: The Threat of the Islamic State in Central Asia

Abstract This article contributes to the growing field of social media and internet research, focusing on questions of securitization and examining the internet politics of Central Asia with a specific focus on Turkmenistan. The article extends the brief analysis introduced by Tucker and Turaeva (2016) concerning Turkmen nationals joining IS (Islamic State). Here, I have contextualized those reported discussions into a wider geopolitical and sociological positioning of the participants (both individual and states) with the aim of uncovering the methods and principles that state and non-state actors use to construct discourses of threat and danger on social media and elsewhere on the internet. I argue that social media and the internet have moved beyond being a means for open communication and exchange; they have also come to be used by authoritarian states to suppress, control, and manipulate certain discourses. In the case of Turkmenistan, social media helps to control security discourse about the ISIS threat and the presence of Turkmenistani nationals in the group, even as it grants open access to information.

The Central Asian states’ role in the world mining industry

The growing needs of mankind for minerals predetermine a systematic increase in the scope of mining operations. However, it is known that mineral resources are not evenly distributed in the bowels of the earth; therefore, due to their production, some regions of our planet can significantly outstrip other regions in their technical and, as a result, economic development; hence, the constant need to extract more minerals in order to develop the domestic industry and to strengthen the economy. This paper is devoted to the Central Asian states, their internal structure, economic integration into the world economy, and the mining sector development as the basis of a successful model for the development of the country as a whole. The study summarizes and analyzes the political system and socio-economic conditions in the Central Asian states. It presents a brief overview of the scale of mining operations; provides information about the mining industry structure in each country and the proceeds from its sales. Taking the Central Asian states as an example, we demonstrate the importance of the mining sector as an integral part of a country’s domestic economic structure.

Military-political Relations Between Russia and Turkey in the Context of the Kazakhstan Crisis of Winter 2021-2022

The article examines the current aspects of military-political relations between Russia and Turkey in the light of the events related to the protests and riots in Kazakhstan in January 2022. Building constructive relations with the Central Asian states, primarily Kazakhstan, is a significant vector of the foreign policy line of modern Turkey in the last decade (2012-2022). To implement this vector of its foreign policy, Turkey is working in various areas of interstate cooperation from trade and economic to military-political cooperation. The political crisis in Kazakhstan in January 2022 became a test for the multi-vector foreign policy of the state, due to the weak reaction of Turkey to these events. Russia, was able to respond promptly to the events in Kazakhstan by providing military and political support to President K.Zh. Tokayev. The study identifies Turkey's current interests in the Central Asian region and examines their compatibility with the aspirations of the post-Soviet states of Central Asia. It examines common interests, as well as differences in views between key players in the region. While Kazakhstan and Turkey have found a common language in trade, cultural exchange and arms trade, they have somewhat contradictory positions on political Islam and state sovereignty. Despite the growing influence of Turkey in the Central Asian region in economic and political relations, Russia is neutral about the strengthening of Turkey's position, taking into account the preservation of the dominant Russian presence in the structure of economic and political life of Kazakhstan.

GEOGRAPHIC, HISTORIC, POLITICAL, RIPARIAN, AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS THAT LEAD TO PAKISTAN AS A LAND OF PENTA MESOPOTAMIA

The research aims to investigate Pakistan’s geographic, historic, political, riparian, and socio-economic factors that lead to Pakistan as a Land of Penta Mesopotamia. Pakistan is situated in South Asia along the coast of Arabian Sea, bordering Afghanistan in west, China in north, Iran in southwest, Arabian Sea in South and Hindustan (India) lies in the east. Historically, the land of Pakistan has been the host of Neolithic period’s South Asian multi Indus valley civilization (IVC) that includes Gandhara, Harappan, Mehrgarh, Mohenjo-Daro, Takht-i-Bahi and Texila civilizations that emerged during 3,300 BCE to 1300 BCE. Muslim Civilizations emerged from 712 to 1857 and British colonial culture also developed from 1857-1947 in this area. The Indus valley civilization flourished parallel to the Mesopotamian civilizations. Mesopotamian civilization includes the Assyrian and Babylonian Civilization that emerged in Iraq in between the two rivers of Euphrates and Tigris from 3,100 B.C. to 332 B.C. and is referred to the “Cradle of Civilizations”. Since Mesopotamian civilization attracted all the ancient civilizations in West Asia to nourish because of its friendly ecological environments, fertile land and rich alluvium soils. Pakistan’s geography also attracted the Indus valley civilizations that emerged in the confluence of seven perennial rivers i.e. Sutlej, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum, Indus, Swat and Kabul rivers, credited as the “Cradle of South Asian Indus valley Civilizations”. Pakistan’s strategic location in the region, her favorable ecosystem for biodiversity, favorable multi seasons, fertile land, friendly ecological conditions, rich agricultural environment, rich alluvium soils, strategic multiple riparian potentials that originate from Himalayan, Karakorum, and Hindu-Kush mountain ranges, remained lucrative for South Asian Indus valley civilizations. Pakistan’s geography also remained very attractive to the sub regions of Asia i.e. Central, South and West Asia because it has provided and has been providing the Mesopotamians agrarian transit economy to landlocked countries of Afghanistan and Central Asian States from the shortest possible sea route of Arabian Sea and visa-vi to oil rich states of Middle East via China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC). Mesopotamian’s cultural, ecological, geographic, historic, riparian, socio-economic, socio-political equilibrium and similar factors are founded in the Indus valley civilizations that erect the sufficient evidence to prove that “Pakistan is a Land of Penta Mesopotamia”. Keywords: Civilizations, Confluence, Fertile land, Mesopotamia, Riparian potentials.

Eurasian Connectivity: Interests of Regional and Great Powers

This article analyses the structure of trading networks in Eurasia and raises important questions on the relationship between these networks and the geopolitical contexts they navigate. Obviously, the geopolitical ambitions of multiple nation-states directly affect the lives and activities of the traders. Besides, nation-states also seek to instrumentally use the trading networks and communities that operate across their territories in order to expand their geopolitical reach and influence. The ultimate goal of these efforts is to dismantle trade barriers among regional players and invigorate intra-regional trade and investments in such a spirit that it would serve their interests. This leaves researchers and analysts wondering whether there is a need for connectivity in Eurasia and how it can be achieved. Which countries are participating in these projects, and what strategies have they adopted? In this article, the author answers the above questions with the help of the relevant maps reflecting the geopolitical interests of major powers and trade statistical reports. The author analyses the institutional arrangements and frameworks created by regional and great powers of Eurasia with special focus on the ambitions of Russia, the European Union, China, Central Asian states, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, and India. Neighboring states may take up an interest in developing overland and maritime trade routes. However, to unlock the potential of regional economic cooperation there are conditions to fulfill, such as favorable economic context and political circumstances or the decision by the governments striving to unlock the potential of their economies through cooperation with the neighbors. Naturally, the Eurasian space has room for most players to participate rather than be self-sufficient, with all of them standing to benefit from increased connectivity. Thus, this article offers a broad note on connectivity issues in Eurasia, which denotes physical and non-physical linkages between continental geographies, polities, economies, and populations. Despite the potential benefits of securing a higher level of connectivity in Eurasia, related initiatives have become a competitive factor. Eurasian powers, both great and regional, have made no secret of their goals to reshape regional and continental integration in accordance with their interests.