Corruption, as one of the most persistent social pathologies, has accompanied humanity since the emergence of the first civilizations. It arose alongside the development of social hierarchies, administrative governance, and resource distribution, becoming an integral part of the relationship between authority and society. In ancient states, corrupt practices were so prevalent that many scholars consider them a systemic factor influencing the evolution of political and legal institutions. In the antiquity era, corruption posed a significant threat to the stability of societies and the efficiency of state governance. States such as Athens, Sparta, and Rome faced a wide range of corrupt practices, including bribery, abuse of power, and embezzlement of public resources. In response, ancient societies began implementing anti-corruption mechanisms based on both legal and moral-ethical principles. Corruption, as a social phenomenon, has accompanied state formations since ancient times, and the civilizations of Ancient Greece and Rome developed various mechanisms to curb it. In Ancient Athens, this issue was seen as a threat to democracy, which led to the introduction of ostracism—-a mechanism of popular voting that allowed for the expulsion of politicians suspected of abusing power or accumulating excessive influence. If a person received more than 6,000 votes on pottery shards (ostraka), they were forced to leave the polis for ten years, serving as a preventive measure against the concentration of power in one person’s hands. Additionally, there was dokimasia, a pre-appointment screening of candidates for public office, which assessed not only their financial standing but also their moral character. After completing their term, officials underwent euthyna, a process of public accountability in which they had to report to the assembly, and if abuses were found, they faced punishments ranging from fines to the death penalty. During the Peloponnesian War, anti-corruption efforts intensified, as state resources were critical for military operations, and any embezzlement was equated with treason. Nevertheless, despite these mechanisms, history records numerous instances of Athenian officials evading responsibility by manipulating the assembly or resorting to bribery. In Ancient Rome, corruption became particularly acute during the late Republic when governing provinces became a means of personal enrichment for officials. The first attempt to address this issue was the Law on Bribery (Lex Calpurnia, 149 BCE), which provided for the prosecution of officials who abused their positions, with penalties including property confiscation and exile. However, this law proved insufficient, leading to the enactment of Lex Julia de repetundis in 59 BCE, which introduced stricter sanctions, requiring guilty officials to return illicitly acquired funds and property, and even face permanent exile. A significant role in combating corruption was played by censors, special officials responsible for overseeing the moral conduct of magistrates and senators, who had the authority to remove corrupt individuals from office. However, during the decline of the Republic and the transition to an imperial system, corruption became even more rampant, and emperors often used bribery as a tool of governance. Some authoritarian rulers took particularly harsh measures against corruption, such as Nero, who ordered the execution of bribery offenders without trial, or Diocletian, who implemented strict control over state financial flows. Similar methods were used in other ancient civilizations; for example, in Babylon, under the Code of Hammurabi, corrupt officials could be sentenced to death, highlighting how seriously this crime was regarded in society. Thus, even in the ancient world, corruption was seen not only as an ethical issue but also as a threat to the state system, necessitating strict legal and administrative measures. These mechanisms included laws regulating the activities of officials, financial reporting obligations for public servants, and institutions of public oversight. For instance, in the Roman Republic, special tribunals were established to handle cases of bribery, while in Athens, citizens participated in judicial processes through a lottery system. However, despite the progressive nature of some approaches, their effectiveness was often limited by inequalities in civil rights, insufficient institutional maturity, and the influence of private interests on state affairs. The study of historical forms of anti-corruption efforts not only provides insights into their impact on the stability of ancient societies but also offers valuable lessons for contemporary governance systems. This article examines the key anti-corruption mechanisms of antiquity, their impact on the political and social structures of those societies, and their relevance in the modern context. The ancient experience of combating corruption serves as a reminder that, even in the most developed societies, eradicating corruption is a complex yet essential task. Keywords: corruption, anti-corruption mechanisms, ancient world, antiquity, Greece, Rome, Athens, Sparta, bribery, abuse of power, effectiveness, legal norms, moral and ethical principles, social hierarchy, public administration, financial control, public oversight, legislation, social stability, political institutions, judicial system.
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May 11, 2025
F K Tojidinov 
Just Published
Open Access