Settlement Stage Research Articles

A Generalized Assessment of Cultural Changes at Stratifi ed Sites: The Case of Chalcolithic Fortresses in Northwestern Caucasus

A multivariate method for assessing cultural changes at stratified sites is proposed. Variables are technological properties of ceramics and occurrences of various categories of fl int implements. The method is applied to stratigraphic sequences of Chalcolithic fortresses in northwestern Caucasus (late 5th–early 4th millennia BC): Meshoko and Yasenova Polyana. Properties of ceramics include hardness, assessed on the Mohs scale, wall thickness, and frequency of fragments tempered with calcium carbonate. For Meshoko, S.M. Ostashinsky’s data on the number of implements made of colored flint, splintered pieces, and the total number of segments, points, inserts, scrapers, and perforators were used as well. Each parameter undergoes regular changes from the lower to the upper levels of the sequence: ceramics progressively deteriorates whereas fl int industry becomes more and more sophisticated. These changes occur in parallel. Data were subjected to principal component analysis. The fi rst principal component is regarded as a generalized measure of cultural change. Results support the view of the excavators: changes were caused by the interaction of two cultures differing in origin. The earlier culture, associated with constructors of the Meshoko fortress, shows no local roots and was evidently introduced from Transcaucasia. One that replaced it was signifi cantly more archaic, a few copper tools notwithstanding, and revealed local Neolithic roots. It alone can be termed the Culture of Ceramics with Punched Node Decoration. The ceramics of Yasenova Polyana, too, indicates cultural heterogeneity and two stages of settlement, but cultural changes are more complicated there, probably because the site existed longer, and more than two cultural components were involved.

A novel assessment of the traction forces upon settlement of two typical marine fouling invertebrates using PDMS micropost arrays.

ABSTRACTMarine biofouling poses a severe threat to maritime and aquaculture industries. To prevent the attachment of marine biofouling organisms on man-made structures, countless cost and effort was spent annually. In particular, most attention has been paid on the development of efficient and environmentally friendly fouling-resistant coatings, as well as larval settlement mechanism of several major biofouling invertebrates. In this study, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) micropost arrays were utilized as the settlement substrata and opposite tractions were identified during early settlement of the barnacle Amphibalanus amphitrite and the bryozoan Bugula neritina. The settling A. amphitrite pushed the periphery microposts with an average traction force of 376.2 nN, while settling B. neritina pulled the periphery microposts with an average traction force of 205.9 nN. These micropost displacements are consistent with the body expansion of A. amphitrite during early post-settlement metamorphosis stage and elevation of wall epithelium of B. neritina during early pre-ancestrula stage, respectively. As such, the usage of micropost array may supplement the traditional histological approach to indicate the early settlement stages or even the initiation of larval settlement of marine fouling organisms, and could finally aid in the development of automatic monitoring platform for the real-time analysis on this complex biological process.

Structural Response of Existed Metro Tunnels to Adjacent Large-section Pipe Jacking Construction

A rectangular pedestrian underpass of 94.5m long, 7m wide and 4.3m high was constructed across the existed metro tunnels using pipe jacking method. The minimum distance from underpass bottom to tunnel crown was 4.5m. In order to investigate the effects of pipe jacking on existed underlying tunnels, the instruments were installed in the tunnels and structural responses were extensively monitored. Based on the field observations, the vertical displacement, horizontal displacement and diameter convergence of the tunnel were analyzed. The results indicate that in the whole pipe jacking process, the tunnel vertical displacement mainly goes through three different stages, namely, initial settlement stage, quick heave stage and steady heave stage. The horizontal displacement of ballast bed is much smaller than that of tunnel crown and is almost negligible. The tunnel was horizontally compressed and vertically stretched after pipe jacking construction. Pipe jacking construction has a greater effect on the tunnel structures just below the underpass than that beyond the width scope of underpass, whether it is vertical displacement, horizontal displacement or diameter convergence of the tunnel.

Effect of Temperature, Diet, Light, and Cultivation Density on Growth and Survival of Larval and Juvenile White AbaloneHaliotis sorenseni(Bartsch, 1940)

ABSTRACT White abalone Haliotis sorenseni was studied in the mariculture laboratory of the Channel Islands Marine Resource Institute in southern California to determine the effect of environmental factors such as temperature, diet, light, and cultivation density on growth and survival. Fertilized eggs and larvae were raised at water temperatures of 9°C, 12°C, 15°C, 18°C, and 21°C in two separate trials. The rate of larvae development increased significantly with each 3°C change in temperature. Survival from fertilization to settlement stage was greatest (56%) at 12°C, followed by survival of 23% at 15°C, and 2% at 18°C. Larvae raised at the extremes of 21°C and 9°C had 100% mortality by 90 and 100 h posthatch. The biological zero temperature, the point at which growth stops, is projected to be 3.04°C for white abalone, significantly lower than that of sympatric species. Fecundity was determined as 7,271 eggs/g for wild-caught abalone and 6,128 eggs/g for hatchery-reared abalone and was not significantly d...

Effects of salinity on fertilization and larviculture of the mangrove oyster, Crassostrea gasar in the laboratory

The mangrove oyster Crassostrea gasar is the main native oyster species cultivated in Brazil. C. gasar culture is based on seed and juvenile capture from the environment. However, its capture using artificial collectors is difficult due to overlapping settlement periods with other oyster species. Therefore, research on seed production techniques of C. gasar in hatcheries is needed. This study evaluated the effect of salinity on fertilization and larviculture of C. gasar in salinities 7, 14, 21, 28 and 35 from December 2013 to April 2014. Fertilization and larva-D development occurred between salinities 21 and 35. Larval development from larva-D to umbo occurred with no significant differences in length and height between salinities 14 and 35. Only larvae cultivated in salinities 28 and 35 reached the settlement stage by the end of the experiment, after 25days of larviculture. Fertilization, embryonic and larval development presented best results in salinity 28.

Numerical analysis on the mechanical performance of supporting structures and ground settlement characteristics in construction process of subway station built by Pile-Beam-Arch method

Pile-Beam-Arch (PBA) method is an effective approach to control the surface settlement induced by excavation to construct the subway station, especially when the station is located in the urban area with dense buildings. Based on the numerical analysis model of practical engineering, the whole construction stages of the subway station built by PBA method are simulated in this paper. The mechanical performance of supporting structures (such as piles, beams, arches, secondary lining and backfill concrete) and surface settlement characteristics during construction are investigated. The results show that the pre-supporting system of piles, beams and arches is formed in the stage of soil excavation under main tunnel arch; Station hall plate and backfill concrete are two key structures to ensure the support stiffness of PBA supporting system. In addition, compared to the bottom-up method, the top-down method for the secondary lining construction can obviously reduce the internal force of supporting structures and the surface settlement. Combined with in-situ monitoring data, three increase stages of surface settlement and the corresponding settlement ratio are gained and the characteristic of surface settlement trough is also analysed. This study is helpful for further understanding the support mechanism of PBA method and the increase law of the ground settlement during the construction of the station built by PBA method.

Thai immigrants’ information seeking behaviour and perception of the public library’s role during the settlement process

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to investigate how Thai immigrants who relocated to Auckland, New Zealand, looked for and found the information they needed during their settlement process. Design/methodology/approach The study used a qualitative methodology through semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions that were conducted with nine Thai immigrants living in the greater Auckland region. Mwarigha’s three stages of settlement and Dervin’s Sense-Making Methodology were used as theoretical frameworks for understanding the information-seeking behaviour of the Thai immigrants and their information needs and associated barriers to accessing information at different stages of the settlement process. Findings The information needs of Thai immigrants in Auckland were diverse based on the stage of each participant’s settlement process. The main information needs of the participants were for employment, English language-learning, housing, health and making connections. Their main information sources during settlement were family, friends and the internet. The participants saw Auckland Libraries as a useful source but did not take full benefit of the library’s services. The main barriers in accessing services were English language incompetence, lack of resources available in the Thai language, lack of time and library staff behaviour. Research limitations/implications The results of this study will provide library and information professionals with new insights into Thai immigrants’ information-seeking behaviour and their information needs, which may contribute to providing immigrants with the information tools they need to improve the quality of their lives in New Zealand. As this study is limited to Thai immigrants in Auckland only, there is a need to conduct a study on the information needs and seeking behaviour of Thai immigrants in other locales. It may be of interest to researchers to conduct a quantitative study of a larger sample to further generalise the findings. Originality/value There is minimal research that specifically investigates the information needs, sources and barriers to information experienced by immigrants throughout the settlement process. This study is unique in that it focuses on a specific ethnic community of Thais. The findings of this study can be a stepping stone towards further research to gain a deeper understanding of Thai and other immigrants’ information needs, sources, barriers and their perceptions towards public libraries.

Assessing Petroleum Contamination in Blue CrabCallinectes sapidusMegalopae Using Fluorescence Spectroscopy

ABSTRACT The Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the spring/summer of 2010 occurred during the peak spawning season of the blue crab Callinectes sapidus in the northern Gulf of Mexico. The potential for contamination of larvae by crude oil and dispersants associated with the spill was high given the life history of blue crabs. The oil spill occurred in offshore waters considered important for blue crab larval development and there was high spatial and temporal overlap between blue crab larvae and the incident area. Exposure to contaminants may have occurred in both the offshore developmental phase and the nearshore settlement stage. Fluorescence spectroscopy techniques were developed to detect polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contamination in composite samples of tissue of 50 megalopae. Samples as low as 400 µl were analyzed allowing for detection of contaminants in very small sample sizes. Evidence of petroleum contamination was found in all megalopae harvested from the wild.

Heave, settlement and fracture of chalk during physical modelling experiments with temperature cycling above and below 0 °C

To elucidate the early stages of heave, settlement and fracture of intact frost-susceptible rock by temperature cycling above and below 0°C, two physical modelling experiments were performed on 10 rectangular blocks 450mm high of fine-grained, soft limestone. One experiment simulated 21cycles of bidirectional freezing (upward and downward) of an active layer above permafrost, and the other simulated 26cycles of unidirectional freezing (downward) of a seasonally frozen bedrock in a non-permafrost region. Heave and settlement of the top of the blocks were monitored in relation to rock temperature and unfrozen water content, which ranged from almost dry to almost saturated.In the bidirectional freezing experiment, heave of the wettest block initially occurred abruptly at the onset of freezing periods and gradually during thawing periods (summer heave). After the crossing of a threshold marked by the appearance of a macrocrack in the upper layer of permafrost, summer heave increased by an order of magnitude as segregated ice accumulated incrementally in macrocracks, interrupted episodically by abrupt settlement that coincided with unusually high air temperatures. In the unidirectional freezing experiment, the wet blocks heaved during freezing periods and settled during thawing periods, whereas the driest blocks showed the opposite behaviour. The two wettest blocks settled progressively during the first 15 freeze-thaw cycles, before starting to heave progressively as macrocracks developed.Four processes, operating singly or in combination in the blocks account for their heave and settlement: (1) thermal expansion and contraction caused heave and settlement when little or no water-ice phase change was involved; (2) volumetric expansion of water freezing in situ caused short bursts of heave of the outer millimetres of wet rock; (3) ice segregation deeper in the blocks caused sustained heave during thawing and freezing periods; and (4) freeze-thaw cycling caused consolidation and settlement of wet blocks prior to macrocracking in the unidirectional freezing experiment. Rock fracture developed by growth of segregated ice in microcracks and macrocracks at depths determined by the freezing regime. Overall, the heave, settlement and fracture behaviour of the limestone is similar to that of frost-susceptible soil.

Sex-specific mortality costs of dispersal during the post-settlement stage promote male philopatry in a resident passerine

The costs and benefits of dispersal that select for sex-biased dispersal are still poorly understood. Many studies examine fitness consequences of dispersal after first breeding, while dispersal costs are most likely paid before first breeding during the movement, settlement, and post-settlement stages. We studied survival correlates of dispersal between flock settlement and first breeding during the first winter of juvenile willow tits (Poecile montanus), a small passerine that has female-biased natal dispersal, but shows no dispersal-associated survival differences after first breeding. This resident food-hoarding species winters in small stable non-kin territorial flocks. We collected capture-recapture data by following flocks from autumn to the following spring. We compared monthly survival and return rates of juveniles that were born and recruited within the study area (philopatric juveniles) and juveniles that originated from outside the study area (immigrant juveniles). Among males, survival was highest for philopatric juveniles whereas survival of females was higher among immigrant juveniles, providing one explanation for the female-biased natal dispersal observed in the species. Philopatric males may benefit from prior residency either through increased site familiarity and knowledge of winter food resources and/or by gaining higher social ranks during flock establishment. However, rank data provided little support for the latter hypothesis. Other mechanisms such as increased ability to find high-quality flocks and mates may be important for female survival. Our results provide further evidence that dispersal costs are paid mainly before first breeding and that sex-specific costs of dispersal play a role in the evolution of sex-biased dispersal. This paper shows that female-biased dispersal can be a consequence of sex-specific costs and benefits of dispersal during the post-settlement stage of the dispersal process which is a very poorly understood stage in dispersal theory. By examining correlates of dispersal before rather than after first breeding as it is usually done, our study aids in understanding the selection pressures modifying dispersal strategies. Our results have wide applicability because there are many resident taxa similar to the willow tit (our study species) that have a settlement stage and a prolonged non-reproductive phase before their first reproduction.

The effects of sediment on Sargassum horneri in the early life stages on rocky subtidal reefs

Sediment plays an important role in controlling the distribution of macroalgae. We examined the distribution of Sargassum horneri in the field considering the effect of sedimentation, and conducted sediment manipulation experiments to test the hypothesis that sedimentation affects the early settlement stages of S. horneri. Field samplings were conducted on rocky subtidal platforms off Gouqi Island, in Zhoushan Archipelago in the Eastern China Sea. Water depth and motion were also measured. Sediment traps and a suction pump were used to collect in situ sediment. In the laboratory, two experiments were conducted to test the effects of sediment cover on zygote attachment and germling survival, respectively. Attachment rate of S. horneri zygotes was reduced from 81.3% of the control group to 3.6% with a medium dusting of sediment (approx. 0.5mm thickness), and 0% with a heavy dusting (approx. 0.7mm thickness). For the germlings, 1.0% of survived when covered by medium (approx. 0.7mm thickness) sediment coverage, whereas high coverage (approx. 1.8mm thickness) caused 100% mortality. Our study showed: 1) in the field, distribution of S. horneri was negatively correlated with sediment amount, and S. horneri was always found abundant in sites with less sediment and intermediate water motion; 2) in laboratory-based experiments, small changes in the abundance of deposited sediment prevented zygote settlement; and 3) relatively small increases in settling sediment affected the survival of already settled zygotes/germlings. In conclusion, we found that sediment was an important driver of S. horneri distribution, especially during the early settlement stages.

Y-chromosome phylogeographic analysis of the Greek-Cypriot population reveals elements consistent with Neolithic and Bronze Age settlements.

BackgroundThe archeological record indicates that the permanent settlement of Cyprus began with pioneering agriculturalists circa 11,000 years before present, (ca. 11,000 y BP). Subsequent colonization events followed, some recognized regionally. Here, we assess the Y-chromosome structure of Cyprus in context to regional populations and correlate it to phases of prehistoric colonization.ResultsAnalysis of haplotypes from 574 samples showed that island-wide substructure was barely significant in a spatial analysis of molecular variance (SAMOVA). However, analyses of molecular variance (AMOVA) of haplogroups using 92 binary markers genotyped in 629 Cypriots revealed that the proportion of variance among the districts was irregularly distributed. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed potential genetic associations of Greek-Cypriots with neighbor populations. Contrasting haplogroups in the PCA were used as surrogates of parental populations. Admixture analyses suggested that the majority of G2a-P15 and R1b-M269 components were contributed by Anatolia and Levant sources, respectively, while Greece Balkans supplied the majority of E-V13 and J2a-M67. Haplotype-based expansion times were at historical levels suggestive of recent demography.ConclusionsAnalyses of Cypriot haplogroup data are consistent with two stages of prehistoric settlement. E-V13 and E-M34 are widespread, and PCA suggests sourcing them to the Balkans and Levant/Anatolia, respectively. The persistent pre-Greek component is represented by elements of G2-U5(xL30) haplogroups: U5*, PF3147, and L293. J2b-M205 may contribute also to the pre-Greek strata. The majority of R1b-Z2105 lineages occur in both the westernmost and easternmost districts. Distinctively, sub-haplogroup R1b- M589 occurs only in the east. The absence of R1b- M589 lineages in Crete and the Balkans and the presence in Asia Minor are compatible with Late Bronze Age influences from Anatolia rather than from Mycenaean Greeks.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13323-016-0032-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Seasonal and daily patterns of nocturnal singing in the Field Sparrow (Spizella pusilla)

Nocturnal singing in diurnal birds is poorly described in the literature and is not well understood. Most research has been limited to the documentation of the behavior, with little information regarding the patterns and function of nocturnal song. We used autonomous acoustic recording units and automated detection and classification algorithms to examine the seasonal and nocturnal patterns of song in the Field Sparrow, Spizella pusilla, a diurnal songbird. We used a generalized linear mixed model to investigate the patterns in the probability of recording each of the two song types described for the species (simple and complex) at night from 7938 10-min recordings from 14 different individuals singing in six different grassland patches. We fit different models investigating the influence of date within the season and time period during the night, and compared models using the Bayesian information criterion. Male Field Sparrows sang both simple and complex songs during the early stages of territory settlement and mate acquisition. However, as the breeding season progressed, we detected fewer instances of simple song, while the occurrence of complex song increased, reaching its peak during the height of reproductive activity. The seasonal pattern of simple and complex songs suggests that they may have a similar function at night and during the day, with simple songs used for inter-sexual interactions and complex songs used for intrasexual functions. Consequently, the role and function of nocturnal song may be more important for reproductive activities than previously assumed.

Bethel Saler.The Settlers’ Empire: Colonialism and State Formation in America’s Old Northwest.

In this impressive study, Bethel Saler offers the kind of careful, diversified, and comprehensive analysis of territorial development and state formation that has been lacking in recent literature on the Old Northwest. This is a historiographical domain once ruled by Frederick Jackson Turner, whose oft-forgotten first book on the Indian trade in Wisconsin pioneered the field of western regional studies. Modern historians of the American West, following the lead of Richard White, Patricia Nelson Limerick, Anne F. Hyde, and others, rightly have found the Turnerian view to have been insufficiently documented and too narrow in scope, lacking in multicultural sensitivity, unsympathetic toward Native Americans, sexist in ignoring women’s roles, and racist as being exclusively white-focused. Saler’s contribution, like those of other “new” western historians, lies in pushing far beyond the analytical limitations and misconceptions of long-outdated scholarship. Although it focuses primarily on the evolution of Wisconsin Territory from early stages of white settlement to its eventual conversion to statehood, the reach of the book is much more ambitious than that, addressing tension in the early nation between its dual identities as a westward-expanding “postcolonial republic” and as a “contiguous domestic empire” (1), composed of entangled—and often conflicting—cultural and political interests. Saler’s well-researched picture of early Wisconsin forms mostly from the ground-up. She asserts limited impact of central governmental planning, with territorial development unfolding haphazardly along the rivers, hunting trails, and trade routes of the Great Lakes area. As she tells it, the story is a messy one of contested spaces, clashing desires, and competing visions, all involving both genders and various types of white settlers and proprietors, including the original French. She also addresses an assortment of Native American groups, sometimes adapting culturally but also struggling, against all too familiar odds and persistent racism of whites, to preserve traditional ways.

The role of information in the settlement experiences of refugee students

ABSTRACTWe conducted a pilot study to explore refugee students' access to and use of information during the settlement process. Using arts‐based elicitation and semi‐structured interview techniques, we probed the information world of a refugee student studying in Canada. Our findings begin to identify the scope and variety of information sources that students consult at various stages of settlement and their utility. Our continued work in this area seeks to assist the Student Refugee Program (SRP) on our campus to advocate for and meet the information needs of refugee students by understanding what information is needed, when it is needed, and how to provide optimal access to it.

Lost at sea: ocean acidification undermines larval fish orientation via altered hearing and marine soundscape modification.

The dispersal of larvae and their settlement to suitable habitat is fundamental to the replenishment of marine populations and the communities in which they live. Sound plays an important role in this process because for larvae of various species, it acts as an orientational cue towards suitable settlement habitat. Because marine sounds are largely of biological origin, they not only carry information about the location of potential habitat, but also information about the quality of habitat. While ocean acidification is known to affect a wide range of marine organisms and processes, its effect on marine soundscapes and its reception by navigating oceanic larvae remains unknown. Here, we show that ocean acidification causes a switch in role of present-day soundscapes from attractor to repellent in the auditory preferences in a temperate larval fish. Using natural CO2 vents as analogues of future ocean conditions, we further reveal that ocean acidification can impact marine soundscapes by profoundly diminishing their biological sound production. An altered soundscape poorer in biological cues indirectly penalizes oceanic larvae at settlement stage because both control and CO2-treated fish larvae showed lack of any response to such future soundscapes. These indirect and direct effects of ocean acidification put at risk the complex processes of larval dispersal and settlement.

Scatting behaviour of the pygmy bluetongue lizard

We used video recordings of 29 pygmy bluetongue lizards for ten days of each month during their spring and summer activity season to observe scatting behaviour. This was possible because resident lizards rarely moved from their single entrance burrows. We used these observations to ask questions about social communication that might be relevant to conservation of this endangered species. We found lizards produced more scats in the middle of the day than earlier or later in the day, and more scats in the spring and early summer than later in the summer. Lizards moved an average of 68.54 ± 0.09 cm from their burrow entrance to deposit scats, taking an average of 2.4 min per defecation trip. They tended to use the same path direction for most defecation trips, but used more different directions if there were more close neighbours, strongly supporting a hypothesis that scats mark burrow ownership. The results suggested that conservation managers might reduce stress for relocated lizards by removing scat piles in the early stages of settlement.

With a Little Help from My Friends: Group Orientation by Larvae of a Coral Reef Fish.

Theory and some empirical evidence suggest that groups of animals orient better than isolated individuals. We present the first test of this hypothesis for pelagic marine larvae, at the stage of settlement, when orientation is critical to find a habitat. We compare the in situ behaviour of individuals and groups of 10–12 Chromis atripectoralis (reef fish of the family Pomacentridae), off Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef. Larvae are observed by divers or with a drifting image recording device. With both methods, groups orient cardinally while isolated individuals do not display significant orientation. Groups also swim on a 15% straighter course (i.e. are better at keeping a bearing) and 7% faster than individuals. A body of observations collected in this study suggest that enhanced group orientation emerges from simple group dynamics rather than from the presence of more skilful leaders.

Deposited sediment settlement and consolidation mechanisms

In order to study deposited sediment settlement and consolidation mechanisms, sediment settlement experiments were conducted using a settlement column. Based on the experimental results, sediment settlement stage definition, excessive pore pressure (EPP) dissipation, and consolidation constitutive equations are discussed. Three stages, including the free settlement, hindered settlement, and self-weight consolidation settlement stages, are defined. The results of this study show that sediment settlement is mainly affected by the initial sediment concentration and initial settlement height, and the interface settlement rate is linearly attenuated with time on bilogarithmic scales during the hindered settlement and self-weight consolidation settlement stages. Moreover, the deposited sediment layer in the self-weight consolidation settlement stage experiences large strains, and the settlement amount in this stage is about 32% to 59% of the initial height of deposited sediment. EPP is nonlinearly distributed in the settlement direction, and consolidation settlement is faster than EPP dissipation in the self-weight consolidation settlement stage. Consolidation constitutive equations for the hydraulic conductivity and effective stress, applicable to large-strain consolidation calculation, were also determined and fitted in the power function form.

Field performance of a genetic algorithm in the settlement prediction of a thick soft clay deposit in the southern part of the Korean peninsula

Long-term settlement data of a thick soft clay deposit improved by vertical drains frequently shows different field settlement behaviors from laboratory-driven predictions by conventional theories due to the variability and uncertainty of the soil properties, modeling simplifications, and types of prediction methods. This paper presents the field application of a back-analysis method based on a genetic algorithm (GA) to evaluate the performance of a new settlement prediction method compared with conventional graphical settlement prediction methods, such as the hyperbolic method and the Asaoka method. The GA back-analysis method shows better flexibility in modifying surcharging plans and adaptability to multi-layered thick soft soil deposits at the early stages of post-construction settlement. Thus, this new settlement prediction method enables geotechnical engineers to subsequently modify the heights of surcharge fills in accordance with field settlement data monitored in the interim for rapid and cost-effective construction. The comparative results show that the GA back-analysis method is capable of superior field performance in settlement predictions compared with two conventional graphical methods, within a margin of less than 200mm in a thick soft clay deposit with multiple layers under complex loading conditions.