Spread Of Trees Research Articles

Assessing the effect of invasive tree species on rockfall risk – The case of Ailanthus altissima

The invasive tree species Ailanthus altissima increasingly occupies forests in the southern parts of the Alps. Many of these forests grow on steep slopes and protect settlements and infrastructure from natural hazards, such as rockfall. It is feared that the mechanical properties of Ailanthus are less favourable for energy reduction of falling rocks due to lower wood strength as well as higher prevalence of heart rot. Therefore, the question has arisen whether the spread of Ailanthus will substantially change rockfall risk. The objective of this study is to analyse the influence of the spread of Ailanthus trees in forest stands on their protective effect against rockfall. We first quantify the block energy reduction capacity of single Ailanthus trees based on a block-tree impact model and compare it to that of other species. Subsequently, we analyse the effect of Ailanthus on rockfall risk for different forest scenarios with a varying proportion of Ailanthus at the stand scale. The capacity of Ailanthus to reduce the block energy was quantified using a model of the block impact on a tree based on the Discrete Element Method. We then integrated the obtained results in the rockfall trajectory model RockyFor3D. Based on rockfall simulations, we finally calculated rockfall risk for different forest scenarios representing current forest conditions and an increasing spread of Ailanthus. The energy reduction capacity of Ailanthus lies in the range of the species predominantly present in the study area, as well as other species that are typically found on rockfall slopes in the Alps. Rockfall risk for houses and roads does not increase with an increasing proportion of Ailanthus without change in the forest structure. Assuming a decrease in tree diameters with an increasing proportion of Ailanthus trees, rockfall risk, however, critically increased. Consequently, whether or not Ailanthus changes rockfall risk in the long term, strongly depends on its influence on the forest structure. To anticipate the evolution of protection forests invaded by Ailanthus, more long-term ecological data on growth and succession of Ailanthus at stand scale is required.

In-Grove Spatiotemporal Spread of Citrus Huanglongbing and Its Psyllid Vector in Relation to Weather.

Reports of spatial patterns of 'Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus'-infected asymptomatic citrus trees and 'Ca. L. asiaticus'-positive Asian citrus psyllids (ACP) are rare, as are published relationships between huanglongbing (HLB), ACP, and weather. Here, spatial patterns of 'Ca. L. asiaticus'-positive asymptomatic and symptomatic trees were determined every half year in a small grove over 2.5 years, and of HLB-symptomatic trees and ('Ca. L. asiaticus'-positive) ACP populations every month in two commercial groves for 1 year. Spread of symptomatic trees followed that of asymptomatic 'Ca. L. asiaticus'-positive trees with <6 months' delay. 'Ca. L. asiaticus'-positive asymptomatic and symptomatic fronts moved at 2.5 to 3.6 m month-1. No spatial relationship was detected between ACP populations and HLB-infected trees. HLB incidence and 'Ca. L. asiaticus'-positive ACP dynamics were tentatively positively correlated with monthly rainfall data and, to a lesser extent, with average minimum temperature.

Effect of conjoint bio-organic and inorganic nutrient sources on plant growth, leaf nutrient content and soil properties of peach (Prunus persica)

The present investigation was carried out to find out the effect of conjoint organic and inorganic nutrient source on plant growth, leaf nutrient content and soil fertility status of peach (Prunus persica L. Batsch). The 9-years old trees of uniform size and vigour, planted at 4 × 2 m spacing were selected for the studies. The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design with 11 different conjoint treatment combinations. Maximum increase in plant height (26.69%), canopy diameter (18.01%), tree spread (15.46%), tree canopy volume (52.72%), annual shoot growth (52.32 cm) and leaf area (32.17 cm2) were recorded in trees supplemented with 75% recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) + vermicompost at 15 kg/tree treatment combination. Leaf N (2.46%), K (1.35%), Mg (0.57%), Cu (11.54 ppm), Fe (224.20 ppm) and Zn (26.14 ppm) were significantly increased in 75% RDF + vermicompost 15 kg/tree treatment application, whereas leaf Ca (1.67%) was higher in trees supplied with 50% recommended dose of fertilizers + vermicompost 30 kg/tree. Maximum available N (279.96 kg/ha) was recorded in treatment combination of 75% RDF + vermicompost 15 kg/tree, however, the conjoint application of nutrient supplemented with 50% RDF + vermicompost 30 kg /tree exhibited significantly higher organic carbon (1.96%), available P (73.39 kg/ha), bacterialcount (43.99 × 10-7 cfu/g) and fungi (7.96 × 10-4 cfu/g) compared to control.

Foliar Fertilization for Enhancing Yield and Fruit Quality of Apple under Rain-Fed Conditions of Mid-Himalayas

A participatory experiment was conducted to assess the effect of foliar application of urea and Agromin on apple. Agromin is a commercial formulation of micronutrients containing mineral elements comprising of optimum proportion of zinc, copper, manganese, boron, molybdenum and magnesium. The experiment was conducted at three different sites at altitudes between 1800 to 2200 m above mean sea level. Thirteen to fifteen years old, uniform trees of cultivar Royal Delicious were applied with treatments viz. Urea @ 0.5% (T1), Agromin @ 0.25% (T2), Urea @ 0.5% + Agromin @ 0.25% (T3), Urea @ 1.0% (T4) and Urea @ 1.0% + Agromin @ 0.25% (T5). Urea and Agromin sprays were done between tight to pink cluster stage of growth. These treatments were compared to control plants which were applied the recommended doses of Nitrogen. Results showed that vegetative growth was significantly influenced by the application of urea and agromin. Application of Urea @1.0% + Agromin 0.5% (T5) resulted in highest plant height (29.17 cm), girth (1.10mm), shoot extension growth (45.25cm) and tree spread (14.23 cm) which was at par with treatment T4. Maximum fruit length (6.71cm), diameter (5.57cm), fruit weight (88.41g) and total yield per plant were recorded in the treatment T5 (Urea @1.0% + Agromin 0.5%) followed by the treatments T3(Urea @0.5% + Agromin @ 0.25%) and T1 (Urea 0.5%). The highest benefit: cost ratio (2.80) was obtained in the treatment T5 (Urea 1.0% + Agromin 0.25%). The lowest B: C ratio (2.45) was observed in Control due to the lowest number of large and medium grade fruits.

Landscape response to the Medieval Warm Period in the South Russian Far East

The landscape changes during the Medieval Warm Period were discussed for the Kuril and Sakhalin Islands, Primorye and the Amur River Basin. Some paleoclimatic parameters and shifts in landscape boundaries were estimated. The environmental changes on the Kuril Islands were manifested mostly in changes of areas occupied by the same plant communities that we see now in modern landscapes. The paleoenvironmental changes in the North and Central Kurils have been partly hidden due to volcanic ashfalls. On Simushir Island birch forests expanded at the expense of diminished tundra landscapes. On the South Kurils, the warming led to the increasing importance of broadleaf trees. In dark coniferous forests, the fir proportion increased. On small islands devoid of forests, the changes in the shrub and herb composition indicated warmer and less humid conditions. On Sakhalin, there were certain distinctions in the changes in the paleolandscape between the north, which was devoid of thermophilic elements in the forests and the south, which belonged to the zone of dark coniferous forests with an admixture of broadleaf trees. In Primorye, the warming caused an increase in the proportion of Korean pine and broadleaf species in the forests, as well as fir prevalence in dark coniferous forests. In the Amur River region, the warming involved considerable changes in the forests, which were expressed by an increase in the role of thermophilic species in the reduction of the proportion of dark coniferous species. The spread of broadleaf trees on the continental and island coasts could be influenced by warm currents amplifying the warming effect. In all regions, the warming was accompanied by a minor transgression. The sea level was higher than at present by ∼1 m, which resulted in the formation of low marine and lagoon terraces, the attenuation of eolian processes on the coasts, and the fixation of coastal dunes with the development of a thick soil.

Survival of Heterobasidion irregulare on red pine discs in cold temperatures

AbstractDisease foci of the conifer root and butt decay pathogen Heterobasidion irregulare are typically initiated following germination of spores deposited on freshly cut stumps, followed by expansion by tree to tree spread through root contacts and grafts. Although most abundant in autumn, inoculum of H. irregulare is also available during some cold winter periods in northern portions of the eastern United States. In both laboratory and field experiments, fresh stem discs of red pine (Pinus resinosa) were inoculated with H. irregulare conidia to test the null hypothesis that the pathogen would not survive prolonged exposure to cold temperatures experienced during winters in those regions. After exposure to cold for various periods of time, discs were incubated and then observed for presence of the Spiniger state of the pathogen. In each of two laboratory trials, the fungus survived on red pine discs incubated at ≤−20°C for 90 days. The field experiment was conducted during each of two winters at two infested red pine plantations. Inoculated discs were deployed periodically beginning in early winter and retrieved after various periods of time until spring. The Spiniger state of the pathogen was frequently observed on discs after laboratory incubation, even after field exposure of up to 6 months, during which temperatures ≤−25°C were sometimes recorded. Whether viable due to growth from inoculum initially placed on the discs, or natural inoculum deposited on discs exposed in the infested plantations, winter temperatures did not eliminate survival of the pathogen on this natural substrate. The potential for survival on stump surfaces during sub‐freezing temperatures during which application of stump protectants in water is impractical should be considered in evaluating the potential risk from H. irregulare to economically and environmentally valuable conifer forests of northcentral and northeastern North America.

A continuous record of vegetation, fire-regime and climatic changes in northwestern Patagonia spanning the last 25,000 years

We present a high-resolution precisely dated terrestrial paleovegetation/paleoclimate record from Lago Pichilaguna, northwestern Patagonia (40°–44°S), which spans continuously from the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) to the present. We find abundant and continuous presence of arboreal pollen (chiefly Nothofagus) during the LGM, accompanied by other trees, shrubs, and alpine herbs. These results suggest Subantarctic parkland and/or scattered woodlands under a cold and hyperhumid climate during the LGM (∼25,000–17,800 cal. yr BP) with expansion of Nothofagus under relatively warm interstadial conditions between 25,000 and 19,200 cal. yr BP. This was followed by cooling and a precipitation increase between 19,200 and 17,800 cal. yr BP, which was contemporaneous with the youngest LGM advance of Andean glaciers in the region and maximum influence of the Southern Westerly Wind (SWW). The Last Glacial Termination (T1) started at 17,800 cal. yr BP and featured the spread of thermophilous trees and ferns characteristic of North Patagonian rainforests, along with lake level lowering. These results suggest a warm pulse and southward shift of the SWW, concurrent with a rapid collapse of Andean glacier lobes. Subsequent changes led to the establishment of closed-canopy rainforests under peak interstadial warmth between ∼16,000 and 15,000 cal. yr BP. We detect a shift to cold/wet conditions during the Antarctic Cold Reversal (14,800–12,700 cal. yr BP) and a precipitation decline during Younger Dryas time, followed by maximum temperature, relatively lower lake level and minimum SWW influence between 11,300 and 7700 cal. yr BP. Precipitation then rose punctuated by centennial-scale variations since 6200 cal. yr BP. Chilean-European deforestation and spread of invasive exotic species started at ∼350 cal. yr BP aided by fire. We conclude that temperate rainforests have persisted with little interruption since T1, with major changes in floristic composition driven by climate change and fires. Rainforest composition and heterogeneity declined in response to Chilean/European disturbance during the 1600s and intensified since the 1800s. These events constitute the fastest/largest-magnitude vegetation changes of the last ∼25,000 years.

Growth response of litchi to arbuscular mycorrhizal co-inoculation with Trichoderma viride, Azotobacter chroococcum and Bacillus megatarium

To examine the microbial cooperation in the rhizosphere as reflected in terms of growth response of young trees (< 5 years) of litchi (Litchi chinensis), field experiments were conducted during 2012–2015 at ICAR-National Research Centre on Litchi, Muzaffarpur. The microbial inoculants consisting of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), Trichoderma viride (TR), Azotobacter chroococcum (AZ) and Bacillus megatarium (BM) along with their combinations were compared with application of recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF). The data revealed that AMF in combination with other microbial inoculants resulted in significantly higher increase in growth parameters viz., tree height, tree girth, tree spread, leaf area and leaf chlorophyll content. Growth response produced by combination of AMF + AZ + TR were the best or statistically at par (p = 0.05) with AZ + TR for most of the parameters. Similarly, significant higher root biomass, volume and density were observed with application of microbial inoculants. While AMF positively influenced the increase in population of T. viride and A. chroococcum, it negatively influenced the increase of population of B. megatarium which corroborated with the observed growth response of litchi trees. Thus, the studies not only confirmed the positive response of AMF and A. chroococcum reported in different crop species but also demonstrated a synergistic response of AMF with A. chroococcum and T. viride in litchi under field conditions.

Early and middle Holocene ecosystem changes at the Western Carpathian/Pannonian border driven by climate and Neolithic impact

Travertine deposits are unique archives for multidisciplinary studies of past climate changes, associated vegetation development and the evolution of human societies. Despite their high potential in palaeoecological and palaeoclimate reconstructions, investigations of travertines are rather scarce in central Europe and particularly in Slovakia. Therefore, this study focused on a travertine deposit situated on the border between the Pannonian Basin and the Western Carpathians in a small valley in Santovka village (SW Slovakia), which is unique due to the presence of archaeological artefacts with known radiocarbon ages in the palaeoecological profile. Using a multidisciplinary approach combining macrofossil, pollen, mollusc, lithological and geochemical analyses, this study investigated climate–human–vegetation interactions. The Holocene onset was marked by the early arrival of oak trees; however, forest‐steppe with a high representation of pine predominated until 9880 cal. a BP, followed by an expansion of temperate trees. The local ecosystem changed around 8600 cal. a BP when the valley was probably dammed by a travertine accumulation, probably resulting in the existence of a small travertine lake. This was associated with wetter climatic conditions, which were also documented in other sites in the Western Carpathians at that time. Surrounding temperate forest possibly retained a certain degree of openness, or local steppe habitat may have persisted on adjacent loess terraces until the neolithization of the area. Archaeological evidence represented by a ceramic shard dated to 7339 cal. a BP suggests the first appearance of humans at the site, yet pollen analysis records a significant change in vegetation first at 6650 cal. a BP. The local ecosystem records an abrupt change linked with human settlement earlier, at c. 7000 cal. a BP. Deforestation activities of the Neolithics resulted in the formation of an open calcareous fen occupied by numerous light‐demanding mollusc species. The present study provides new important data about the spread of temperate trees at the onset of the Holocene, about further vegetation changes caused by activities of the first Neolithic farmers and about climate changes in the region of southwestern Slovakia.

Growth, yield and fruit quality of Kinnow mandarin as affected through foliar application of zinc and boron

The investigation was undertaken with a view to determine the growth, yield and fruit quality of Kinnowmandarin as affected through foliar application of zinc and boron. The results revealed that combined applicationof 0.2 per cent boric acid + 0.5 per cent zinc sulphate at fruit set and peach size stage of fruit through foliarspray exerted significant influence on plant height, tree spread and shoot length. The maximum fruit retention (71.77%), number of fruits plant−1(486.24), fruit weight (163.23 g), fruit volume (194.79 cc), fruit diameter (7.16 cm), yield plant−1 (79.32 kg) and yield ha−1 (31.73 t) were recorded in treatment T9 (0.2 per cent boric acid + 0.5per cent zinc). The same treatment had markedly influenced the quality of Kinnow fruit and the maximum TSS (12.18 oBrix), TSS/acid ratio (16.66), reducing sugars (3.87%), total sugar (7.22%), ascorbic acid (25.16mg/100 g)and juice content (41.43%) were recoreded in this traetement (T9). The lowest acidity (0.73%) and rind thickness (2.79 mm) were also recorded in treatment T9 (0.2 per cent boric acid + 0.5 per cent zinc). This treatment alsoincreased the zinc (100.08 ppm) and boron (80.81 ppm) level of kinnow mandarin leaves.

Impact of pruning on growth, yield and quality of mango cv. Dashehari

An experiment was carried out to study the impact of pruning on growth, yield and quality of mango cv. Dashehari. Ten treatments consisted of heading back of terminal shoots at two different levels viz., M1: 10 cm &amp; M2: 20 cm, with two level of frequency i.e., F1: annually &amp; F2: biennially and at two different timings i.e., T1: immediately after fruit harvest (June-July) &amp; T2: during rest period before the emergence of new growth (floral and vegetative) including control as M0F0T0 with and without Paclobutazol (PBZ), were imposed on the trees. The trial was laid out in Randomized block design replicated thrice and single tree served as treatment unit. On the basis of 6 years (2009-2014) pooled data, it was observed that the vigorous growth in terms of tree height (4.56 m), trunk circumference (43.56 cm) and tree spread (3.03 m) were observed in the trees under control (M0F0T0 without PBZ), whereas the trees which were pruned annually by heading back of 20 cm of terminal shoots during rest period before emergence of new growth along with paclabutrazol application (M2F1T2) showed less growth in terms of tree height (3.30 m) and spread (2.21 m). The annual pruning of tree by heading back of 10 cm of terminal shoots immediately after fruit harvest along with paclobutrazol application (M1F1T1) proved effective for increasing the number of fruits per tree (51.31), yield (9.09 kg/tree and 15.14 t/ha), B: C ratio (4.04), maintaining fruit quality and for having the appropriate dwarfing effect on the tree.

Effect of chemical thinning, gibberellic acid and pruning on growth and production of nectarine (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch var. nucipersica) cv. May fire

The present investigation was carried out on 12-year old trees of nectarine (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch var. nucipersica) cultivar May Fire raised on wild peach seedling rootstocks, Farmer’s orchard at Kotla- Barog in District Sirmour during the years 2014 and 2015. In this experiment, experimental trees were subjected to seventeen different treatments;T1: Pruning to retain 60 fruiting shoots tree-1 (control), T2: Pruning to retain 50 fruiting shoots tree-1, T3: Pruning to retain 40 fruiting shoots tree-1 ,T4: NAA 40 ppm, 2 WAPF (week after petal fall) ,T5: Ethrel 300 ppm, 2 WAPF, T6: GA3 100 ppm, 4 WAPF, T7: GA3 200 ppm, 4WAPF, T8: GA3 100 ppm, 6 WAPF T9: GA3 200 ppm, 6 WAPF, T10: Pruning to retain 50 fruiting shoots tree-1 + NAA 40 ppm (T4), T11: Pruning to retain 50 fruiting shoots tree-1 + Ethrel 300ppm (T5), T12: Pruning to retain 50 fruiting shoots tree-1 + GA3100 ppm (T6), T13: Pruning to retain 50 fruiting shoots tree-1 + GA3 100 ppm (T8),T14: Pruning to retain 40 fruiting shoots tree-1 + NAA 40 ppm (T4), T15: Pruning to retain 40 fruiting shoots tree -1 +Ethrel 300 ppm (T5),T16: Pruning to retain 40 fruiting shoots tree -1 + GA3 100 ppm (T6), T17: Pruning to retain 40 fruiting shoots tree -1 + GA3 100 ppm (T8), pertaining to alternative approach to chemical thinning, chemical thinner were more effective in improving the production of superior grade fruits than reducing the crop load directly by pruning or indirectly by GA 3 (Gibberellic Acid) treatments. Treatments with NAA (naphthalene acetic acid) at 40 ppm when applied two weeks after petal fall reduced the crop load to the greatest extent and improve the yield of superior grade fruits and increase the leaf to fruit ratio and decrease the fruit drop. Pruning to retain 40 fruiting shoots tree-1 + NAA 40 ppm, 2WAPF increased the shoot growth (160.80, 170.20cm), tree height (3.70,4.50 cm), tree spread (2.84,3.60), leaf area (42.71, 40.63 cm) during both the year. However, effect of chemical were less pronounced on trees subjected to severe pruning.

Genetic architecture of cashew germplasm accessions

&lt;p&gt;The variability and genetic architecture was assessed deploying 13 important quantitative characters of 478 cashew germplasm&lt;br /&gt;accessions evaluated and conserved in National Cashew Field Gene Bank, Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur in India.&lt;br /&gt;Considerable variability was observed for all characters and the highest co-efficient of variation (CV) was observed for sex ratio&lt;br /&gt;followed by cumulative yield per plant and apple weight. The lowest CV was observed for shelling percentage followed by shell&lt;br /&gt;thickness. Frequency distribution patterns showed highly positively skewed distribution for characters such as nut weight, sex&lt;br /&gt;ratio, apple weight and apple to nut ratio. Genetically, it is evident that decreasing alleles are in excess and dominant for these&lt;br /&gt;characters. Tree spread, kernel weight and cumulative yield per plant showed moderately positively skewed distribution indicating&lt;br /&gt;decreasing alleles are in slight excess and dominant. Flowering intensity showed moderately negative skewed distribution indicating&lt;br /&gt;the presence of increasing alleles in slight excess and their dominant nature. Tree height, shell thickness, flowering duration,&lt;br /&gt;shelling percentage and leaf area showed approximately symmetric distribution indicating increasing and decreasing alleles are in&lt;br /&gt;equal proportion and the dominance is ambi-directional. Significant positive correlations with cumulative yield per plant were&lt;br /&gt;observed for tree height, tree spread, sex ratio, flowering duration, apple to nut ratio, shelling percentage and leaf area and&lt;br /&gt;significant negative correlation for shell thickness. The present germplasm collection represents sufficient number of accessions&lt;br /&gt;for both quantitative and qualitative characters in desired direction. However, based on the frequency distribution patterns, it is&lt;br /&gt;imperative to collect germplasm with dwarfness, less tree spread, high nut weight, apple weight and high yield.&lt;/p&gt;

Induction of changes by nitrification inhibitor and nitrogen source on vegetative growth, physiological processes and biochemical constituents of Kinnow mandarin

A field experiment was conducted on two-year-old Kinnow mandarin plant to find out effect of different nitrogen sources and nitrification inhibitors on vegetative growth, physiological processes and biochemical constituents of Kinnow mandarin. There were thirteen treatments comprising four nitrogen sources, viz. ammonium sulphate (AS), calcium nitrate (CN), mixture of ammonium sulphate + calcium nitrate and urea, two nitrification inhibitor, viz. Dicyandiamide (DCD) 5% of fertilizers, meliacins (M) 0.1% of fertilizers and control. The increase in tree height was recorded significantly higher in plants treated with AS + DCD (44.05%); whereas, tree spread E-W (77.33%), tree spread N-S (66.03%), specific leaf area (123.86 cm2/g) and shoot growth rate (247.39%) was found maximum in AS + M. In the plants applied with AS + DCD registered significantly maximum values of chlorophyll (a, b and total) content, photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance. However, transpiration rate was found maximum under treatment AS + M when applied during winter and summer in split doses. Ammonium sulphate treated with DCDproduced statistically highest total soluble sugar (9.22, 9.78 and 9.40% leaf fresh wt) and soluble proteins (74.80, 76.49 and 71.96 mg/g leaf dry wt) during winter, autumn and summer, respectively followed by ammonium sulphate treated with meliacins. The ammonium sulphate and urea as source of N along with nitrification inhibitor have a strong impact on growth and physio-biochemical parameters on Kinnow plants; thus, improved the performance of Kinnow plants under above natural pH soil conditions.

Patterns and dynamics of European vegetation change over the last 15,000 years

AbstractAimPalaeoecological reconstructions document past vegetation change, with estimates of fast shifts in species distributions. The resulting rates of plant spread are often not matched by model simulations of climate‐driven vegetation dynamics. Genetic surveys of extant plant populations document directions of the post‐glacial spread of trees, challenging traditional interpretations. Our aim is to examine an updated continental pollen data set from Europe in the light of the new ideas about vegetation dynamics emerging from genetic research and vegetation modelling studies.LocationEurope.MethodsWe use pollen data from the European Pollen Database (EPD) to construct interpolated maps of pollen percentages documenting changes in the distribution and abundance of major plant genera and the grass family in Europe over the last 15,000 years.ResultsOur analyses confirm high rates of post‐glacial spread with at least 1000 m year−1 for Corylus, Ulmus and Alnus and average rates of 400 m year−1 for Tilia, Quercus, Fagus and Carpinus. The late Holocene expansions of Picea and Fagus populations in many European regions cannot be explained by migrational lag. Both taxa shift their population centres towards the Atlantic coast suggesting that climate may have played a role in the timing of their expansions. The slowest rates of spread were reconstructed for Abies.Main conclusionsThe calculated rates of post‐glacial plant spread are higher in Europe than those from North America, which may be due to more rapid shifts in climate mediated by the Gulf Stream and westerly winds. Late Holocene anthropogenic land use practices in Europe had major effects on individual taxa, which in combination with climate change contributed to shifts in areas of abundance and dominance. The high rates of spread calculated from the European pollen data are consistent with rapid tracking of early Holocene climate change by common tree species, documenting that plants can spread fast tracing their climate space, regardless of their dispersal strategy.

Pruning and productivity of old unproductive ber cultivars in lower Shiwaliks of Punjab

A study was conducted to rejuvenate old orchard of ber under rainfed conditions. Though the trees started fruiting in the same year after rejuvenation but the yield was negligible, although it increased remarkably during third year. The vegetative growth traits i.e. plant height, spread and canopy volume was significantly affected by severity of pruning. Plant height after three years of pruning was recorded maximum in Sanaur-2 than ZG 2 and Umran. Tree spread and canopy development of rejuvenated trees in terms of tree volume showed increase over the year of rejuvenation as age of tree increased irrespective of cultivar. The variety Sanaur-2 recorded 3.50 times higher yield compared to yield level just before the process of rejuvenation. The morphological attributes of fruits obtained from rejuvenated trees were significantly higher than non-rejuvenated trees of each cultivar. The chemical attributes, i.e. TSS and total sugars were found slightly higher in fruits from non-rejuvenated trees. Hence, rejuvenation technology helped in restoring the productivity of old, unproductive orchard in shortest possible time in lower Shiwaliks of Punjab.

Evaluation of apple cultivars under sub-temperate mid hill conditions of Himachal Pradesh

The evaluation of 15 apple cultivars was carried out at Progeny cum Demonstration Orchard, Kwagdhar, district Sirmaur, under sub-temperate region of Himachal Pradesh during 2010 and 2011. The maximum tree height (3.29 cm), tree spread (1.82 m) were recorded in ‘Fuji Kiku’, whereas, tree volume (8.34 m3), scion girth (30.25 cm), annual shoot growth (39.97 cm) and leaf area (38.77 cm2) in ‘Gala Mischala’. The highest fruit set, yield and productivity were recorded (69.07%, 9.68 kg/tree and 24.21 t/ha, respectively) in ‘Oregon Spur-II’. The bigger size fruits in terms of length (59.67 cm), breadth (67.12 cm), and ascorbic acid content (56.37 mg/100 g) were found in ‘Red Chief’, while, maximum fruit weight (155.6 g) was observed in Silver Spur. The highest TSS (15.95%) was recorded in ‘Gale Gala’, whereas, more acidic (0.90%) fruits were found in ‘Breaburn’. The maximum total sugars (11.94%) were found in ‘Sansa’ and highest reducing sugars (6.56%) were found in Oregon Spur II. The best fruit shape and surface colour was observed in ‘Super Chief” and ‘Camspur’. The longer duration of flowering (16 days) were recorded in cultivar Sun Fuji and Silver Spur. The cultivar ‘Super Chief’ registered maximum spur density (10.80/cm2), and lowest fruit drop (18.09%), whereas, ‘Fuji Kiku’ and ‘Gale Gala’ recorded the least spur density (2.56 and 3.19/cm2, respectively). The cultivar Pink Lady was earliest to flower whereas; ‘Red Fuji’ was last to harvest. From the present investigations it may be concluded that ‘Red Chief’, ‘Super Chief’, ‘Oregon Spur II’ and ‘Camspur’ in Delicious group, ‘Gala Mischala’ in Gala group, and ‘Auvil Early Fuji’ and ‘Sun Fuji’ in Fuji group have good yield potential, earliness and better fruit quality within their respective groups and may be recommended for cultivation in sub-temperate conditions of Himachal Pradesh.

Three Linked Stories

Three Linked Stories Kurahashi Yumiko (bio) Translated by S. Yumiko Hulvey (bio) beneath the blossoms Late at night, around the time the dog, husband, and children were sleeping peacefully, Keiko touched up her makeup, getting ready to meet someone. She told no one about this, not because she needed to keep it a secret, but because there was no need to tell others. There was another world and she had been seeing people from that world, and it would be difficult for anyone to understand such an explanation. Keiko looked at her reflection in the mirror. Because she had applied her evening makeup, her face emitted a bewitching phosphorescence that seemed to confirm her transportation to the other world. When she felt the presence of someone outside, she got up and slipped out of the house. She passed through the walls and doors at will. When she went out into the garden, Mr. Satō was standing outside bathed in moonlight. "Sorry to keep you waiting," she said. Mr. Satō returned her commonplace greeting, and she realized that he was walking without drawing a shadow behind him. Pretty amazing, she thought. She also cast no shadow at that time. Along the way, she patted the head of a dog, but it gave no sign of awakening. This was a ritual—a sign that she had been transported to the other world. Long ago, they had made a pledge to go cherry blossom viewing at night. Even in Keiko's garden, there was a cherry tree in full bloom. Because it was a Somei Yoshino variety of cherry tree, the blossoms floated in their eerie whiteness like clouds against the night sky. "This is the kind of cherry blossom that drives people mad," said Mr. Satō. Keiko quite agreed. Without doubt, if you spent a night under the blossoms and a full moon, the combined effect of the spirits of the moonlight and blossoms would drive you crazy. "In the past, it was probably mountain cherries," said Keiko as she imagined the cherry that appeared around the rustic cottage in Sagano in the Nō play Saigyō's Cherry Blossoms. This thought was somehow transmitted to Mr. Satō, who said, "We could go there if you'd like." Smiling, he took her hand, and they easily traversed both time and space. The two of them appeared in the garden of the cottage. [End Page 75] While Keiko was talking, she recalled again that Mr. Satō was Saigyō. Despite this, she thought that neither Saigyō nor Satō Norikiyo suited him. The Mr. Satō who sometimes visited Keiko's place or whom she saw in town was a person with a handsome face and a tall, lean figure. He wore stylish tweed jackets and was a gentleman of no discernible occupation. Even though he was clearly older than Keiko, it was hard to determine his age. He looked as if he had lived an awfully long time without looking aged—especially his beautiful hands, which seemed to defy both age and gender. They possessed an elegance that could only have been acquired by having lived and played hundreds of years with blossoms, moon, and snow. Holding Keiko's hand, Mr. Satō said, "How do you like these cherry blossoms?" "These are the mountain cherries Saigyō liked so much," said Keiko, covering Mr. Satō's hand with her other one. She was a little embarrassed that she had mentioned Saigyō's name. "He probably liked cherries such as these, which have blossoms and leaves mixed together, don't you think?" Just like she said, the old cherry tree spread forth branches laden with countless delicate blossoms and leaves like a figure wearing a canopy, shimmering in a haze of strange gentleness and splendor superimposed on the figure of Mr. Satō. No, it was the venerable priest Saigyō. Mr. Satō muttered this passage from Saigyō's Cherry Blossoms: anshitsu no hana wa hana ippon waga hitori nagamuru mono mo waga to hana to yori hoka ni wa nashi to omohishi ni Blossoms at the hermitage, only one tree for me alone— I had thought there would be no one other than myself who would gaze at the...

Palaeobotanical records from Rebun Island and their potential for improving the chronological control and understanding human–environment interactions in the Hokkaido Region, Japan

Rebun Island with Hamanaka and Funadomari among the 43 documented archaeological sites and the environmental archive stored in the Lake Kushu sediment proves to be one of the key areas to study the interplay between ecology, climate and human activities. This paper focuses on the potential of palaeobotanical records from Rebun Island for improving the chronological control and understanding of late Quaternary climate changes and habitation environments of northern hunter-gatherers in the Hokkaido Region of Japan. A set of 57 radiocarbon dates of the RK12 core (Lake Kushu) demonstrates that it represents a continuous environmental archive covering the last c. 17,000 years. The RK12 pollen record reflects distinct vegetation changes associated with the onset of the lateglacial warming about 15,000 cal. yr BP and the cold climate reversal after c. 13,000 cal. yr BP. The onset of the current Holocene interglacial after c. 11,700 cal. yr BP is marked by a major spread of trees. The middle Holocene ( c. 8000–4000 cal. yr BP) is characterized by a major spread of deciduous oak in the vegetation cover reflecting a temperature increase. A decline of oak and spread of fir and pine is recorded at c. 2000 cal. yr BP. After c. 1100 cal. yr BP, arboreal pollen percentages decrease, possibly linked to intensified usage of wood during the Okhotsk and Ainu culture periods. The results of diatom analysis suggest marshy or deltaic environments at the RK12 coring site prior to c. 10,500 cal. yr BP and a brackish lagoon between c. 10,500 and 7000 cal. yr BP. A freshwater lake developed after 6500 cal. yr BP, likely reflecting sea level stabilization and formation of the sand bar separating the Kushu depression from the sea. Plant macrofossil analysis shows use of various wild plants and also domesticated barley during the Okhotsk and Ainu periods.

Efficacy of organic and inorganic mulching materials on weed count, growth, and yield of aonla (Emblica officinalis) cv. NA 7

Studies were carried out in NA 7 cultivar of aonla (Emblica officinalis Gaertn) to assess the efficacy of organic and inorganic mulching materials on growth, flowering and yield during 2013 and 2014. Treatments consisted of mulching materials, viz. black polythene, white polythene, paddy straw, saw dust, sarkanda, dry grass with control (unmulched). The results indicated that maximum increase in tree height (0.55 m), tree spread in north-south (0.23 m) and east-west (0.17 m) and tree volume (11.11 cm3) was recorded in black polythene mulch, while it was minimum in control. The black polythene mulch reduced the weed growth in terms of count and weight by cent per cent. As far as floral characteristics, plant with black polythene mulch were the first to flower (11 April 2013), with maximum duration of flowering (23 days) and male : female flower ratio (22:1). Black polythene mulch was superior to all other mulching treatments in terms of yield attributes as it registered maximum fruit set (56.15%), minimum fruit drop (55.87%) and higher yield/tree (72.77 kg/tree). Thus, it can be concluded that black polythene improved the tree growth, flowering, fruit production and lowered weed population of aonla cv. NA 7 as compared to control in rainfed areas.