Spray Rate Research Articles

Effect of micro-explosion and puffing on combustion interactions of multi-component fuel droplet array during flame spread

Micro-explosion is a potential scheme to increase the combustion rate of engine spray and reduce emissions. The present study investigates the effects of micro-explosion and puffing on the combustion interaction of multi-component fuel droplet array using a magnified high-speed backlit illumination technique. The mechanisms of micro-explosion and puffing in droplet array combustion were proposed. The results indicate that droplet array combustion primarily consists of two droplets burning in the same flame, three droplets burning in the same flame, and independent flame combustion. Three droplets burning in the same flame lasts the longest at droplet spacings of 2 and 3, accounting for 97.14 % and 72.06 % of the total combustion time, respectively. The total combustion duration of the droplet array is shortened by 34.1 % and 40.3 % at droplet spacings of 2 and 3 compared to the theoretical combustion time. However, the total combustion duration of the droplet array is 1.9 % and 7.4 % longer than the theoretical value at droplet spacings of 4 and 5. Most importantly, the interaction factor first increases and then decreases with increasing droplet spacing. The third droplet has the smallest interaction factor. This is mainly determined by the combined effects of hypoxia, flame heating, and vapor cooling.

ZnS Thin Films Prepared Using Spray Pyrolysis Technique

It is well known that spray pyrolysis of an aqueous solution of thiourea and zinc acetate onto a glass substrate at spray rates of (3 mlmin-1) may successfully synthesize thin coatings of zinc sulfide. The impact of several substrate temperatures (150, 200, 300, and 400 oC) on the structural and optical characteristics was also discussed in this research. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), UV-Vis-NIR spectrometry, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were used to characterize the films. On each one of the deposited ZnS sheets, a cubic structure was seen. On the other hand, the temperature of the substrate appeared to affect the crystallinity and morphology. It was discovered that as the substrate temperature was lowered, the bandgap value of ZnS films somewhat rose. Furthermore, it is most likely that the Zn(S,O) production inside the solid solution is responsible for the fluctuations seen in the 3.5-3.8 eV region.

Spray and evaporation characteristics of high-pressure liquid ammonia injection under flash-boiling and evaporating conditions

Ammonia, as an efficient hydrogen carrier, is considered a promising zero-carbon alternative fuel for energy systems. High-pressure liquid ammonia injection enables efficient and clean utilization of ammonia in energy devices. This study systematically investigates the spray and evaporation characteristics of high-pressure liquid ammonia spray with two different nozzle diameters (0.1 mm and 0.3 mm) over wide operating conditions by combining high-speed DBI and shadowgraph techniques. The results indicate that the expansion rate of the small-nozzle spray is greater than that of the large-nozzle spray at low superheat (1.4 ∼ 2). As the superheat exceeds 2, the spray expands significantly radially, with a larger expansion rate for the large-nozzle spray, suggesting the large-nozzle spray is more prone to forming flash-boiling bubbles. Under high temperature and pressure conditions with fixed ambient pressure, the liquid penetration increases and then decreases as the temperature increases, and the inflection point temperature of the large-nozzle spray is higher. Compared with diesel, the axial diffusion of the liquid ammonia is larger while the radial diffusion is smaller. There is a post-supercooling residual region affected by the pilot-evaporated ammonia in the capturing and recirculation regions, where the fuel cannot completely evaporate like the diesel. This characteristic should be considered when designing the liquid ammonia spray system.

Assessing the multifaceted repercussions of chemical insecticides on vegetable yield and human population: A modeling study

Vegetables stand out as invaluable reservoirs of essential vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and vital dietary elements, yet their production faces a considerable threat due to insects. To tackle this challenge, farmers spray chemical insecticides to enhance vegetable yields by controlling the insect population. Nevertheless, the presence of insecticide residues in vegetables stands as a primary contributor to acute illnesses and chronic health conditions in humans. In the present research work, we formulate a novel nonlinear mathematical model meticulously designed to scrutinize the multifaceted repercussions of chemical insecticides on vegetable yield and the human population. In our model formulation, we adopt a dynamic approach where insecticide application on vegetables in agricultural fields correlates with the insect population. However, we acknowledge the consequential impact of insecticide usage on human health, which in turn reduces the growth rate of the human population. This study determines the critical value of the spraying rate of insecticide at which the human population reaches its maximum, ensuring that human needs for vegetables are met while minimizing the adverse effects of insecticide. Since various species of insects attack vegetables in the field and different insect species have different natural mortality rates, therefore we also identify the range of natural mortality rates of insects for which vegetable yield is minimal and fluctuates with time. Further, our research reveals that if the natural mortality rate of insects in a certain crop field lies within this identified range, then farmers should increase the insecticide spraying rate to avoid this upheaval situation and stabilize vegetable yield at a higher level.

Improved sprayed water boiler design for steam production

The lengthy time required for conventional boilers to attain a steady state, their sizable size, the substantial pressure drop, and their high cost are all disadvantages. The objective of this study was to develop a novel design for a boiler to achieve better performance based on a sprayed water boiler (SWB) through injectors with a specific spray rate in a near-atomized form over tubes containing hot gases. As the water temperature in the SWB is equal to the temperature of the water sprayed by the injectors, the temperature difference between the hot gases and the water is higher than in the conventional boiler. A parametric study was conducted to investigate the main parameters affecting the boiler performance, such as the steam quantity and quality, the time required to reach the steady state condition, the size of the boiler, and the drop pressure on the hot-gas side. The results showed that the size of the SWB was significantly smaller than that of a conventional boiler. When generating steam of the same quantity and quality, the size of the SWB is one-third of the conventional size. This reduces the manufacturing costs of the boiler and the pressure drop of the hot gases inside the boiler. It was also found that the thermal efficiency of the SWB was higher, and the start-up time to reach a steady state of operation was less than 1% of the time required for the conventional boiler. To close the gaps in the theoretical design, an experimental test should be performed.

A New Process of Chemical Plating Ni-P Electromagnetic Induction Heating Activation on the Surface of Aluminium Alloy Base Material

Nowadays, there are many surface treatment methods for aluminium alloys; the most commonly used of these is the chemical dip galvanizing process, which is complicated due to its use of large quantities of corrosive drugs. In order to simplify the process, this paper proposes a new electromagnetic induction heating activation method instead of the zinc dipping process. The method works as follows: The substrate is first degreased and then activated. The activation process starts by soaking the degreased substrate in an activation solution, taking it out after ten minutes, and placing it into an induction heating unit. The activation solution is sprayed onto the surface of the substrate while heating, using the energy generated by high temperatures to complete the activation reaction. The surface of the activated substrate forms a nanoscale film of nickel, which is finally utilised as a catalytic centre for ENP (an advanced surface treatment process that deposits a very uniform layer). The optimisation of important parameters of the non-destructive activation process was determined using the L9 Taguchi method. The main parameters ranged from 0.15 L/min to 0.25 L/min for spray rate, 200 °C to 400 °C for heat treatment temperature, and 1:4, 1:5, and 1:6 for Ni2+ and H2PO4− ion concentration ratios. The above data were derived from a single variable and were analysed using Minitab 20 software. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), energy spectrometry (EDS), and ultrasonic experiments were used to characterize and analyse the surface morphology, composition, and bond strength of the coatings. The results show that the nanoscale nickel particles can completely cover the surface of the substrate, forming a layer of nano-film. After activation and ultrasonic cleaning for 30 s at an ultrasonic frequency of 40 KHz and a power of 80 W, the surface nano-film was not destroyed, which proves that it had a high bonding strength. After the application of the plating, the plated surface had a compact microstructure, and the continuity was good. Therefore, compared with the currently commonly used zinc dipping process, this process has the advantages of being a low-cost, simple operation, and non-destructive and environmentally friendly activation process for the substrate.

The Influence of Spraying and Fertilizer Rate on the Structural Indicators of Soft Wheat Varieties in the Mountainous Areas of Guba Region

Abstract The article mentions different productivity indicators of sowing, fertilizer and without fertilizer. From the results of the research, it is seen that the influence of cultivation factors on the productivity indicators of plants is different and depends on the number of plant stems in a single area, the mass of grain, etc. depends on factors. Changes in fertilizer rates have a significant impact on the productivity of small crop rate variations.

Influence of multi-factor interactions on particle growth during top-spray fluidized bed agglomeration

Considering the strong dependence of agglomerate characteristics on various operating parameters, this study employs the control variable methodology (CVM) and response surface methodology (RSM) to investigate the influence of multi-factor interactions on particle growth during top-spray fluidized bed agglomeration. First, CVM is conducted to assess the effects of individual operating parameters on the agglomerate properties, such as mean particle size, relative width, and sphericity. Then, the interactive relationship between these input variables and the quality attributes of the process is investigated using RSM. The results show that the mean particle size increases with the increase of binder viscosity and spray rate, while it decreases with the increase of fluidization gas velocity and inlet gas temperature. The relative width of the particle size distribution increases with the spray rate, binder viscosity, and fluidization gas velocity, and hardly changes with the inlet gas temperature. The mean particle size is more sensitive to the binder spray rate at a lower level of fluidization gas velocity or a higher level of inlet gas temperature. The fluidization gas velocity corresponding to the maximum D50 changes when the binder viscosity and binder spray rate are at different levels.

Development and evaluation of a machine vision and deep learning-based smart sprayer system for site-specific weed management in row crops: An edge computing approach

Traditional weed management often involves blanket herbicide spraying, resulting in substantial herbicide wastage, environmental concerns, and herbicide resistant issues. Smart spraying systems utilizing robotics and sensors technologies can minimize herbicide usage and provide a sustainable solution for site-specific weed management. A machine vision-based spraying system was designed and developed for weed identification and precise spray application onto the target weeds. The sprayer platform utilizes a deep learning YOLOv4 model to accurately recognize multiple weed species, facilitating targeted spray application. The platform is equipped with an FLIR RGB camera for real-time image acquisition and Nvidia Jetson AGX Orin edge device for deploying weed detection deep-learning model. The GPIO pins of Nvidia Jetson were utilized to activate relay, providing precise on/off control over the TeeJet solenoid valves for spot spraying. Both indoor and field experiments were conducted to evaluate and compare the performance of vision-based sprayer system for weed identification and precise spraying onto the target weeds. In the indoor experiment, the sprayer system showed the average effective spraying rate of 93.33 %, with the precision of 100 % and recall of 92.8 %. Conversely, the field experiment resulted in a slightly lower average effective spraying rate of 90.6 %, while maintaining a precision of 95.5 % and a recall of 89.47 %. The reduced accuracy of the spraying system in field experiment was due to varying outdoor conditions such as lighting, shadows, and wind velocity. Overall, the result of this study demonstrates the spraying system's potential for targeted herbicide application onto the grid cells containing weeds, effectively reducing herbicide usage and overall weed management costs.

Analyzing crop production: Unraveling the impact of pests and pesticides through a fractional model

The continuous growth of the human population raises concerns about food, fiber, and agricultural insecurity. Meeting the escalating demand for agricultural products due to this population surge makes protecting crops from pests becomes imperative. While farmers use chemical pesticides as crop protectors, the extensive use of these chemicals adversely affects both human health and the environment. In this research work, we formulate a nonlinear mathematical model using the Caputo fractional (CF) operator to investigate the effects of pesticides on crop yield dynamics. We assume that pesticides are sprayed proportional to the density of pest density and pests not entirely reliant on crops. The feasibility of every possible nonnegative equilibrium and its stability characteristics are explored utilizing the stability theory of fractional differential equations. Our model analysis reveals that in a continuous spray approach, the roles of pesticide abatement rate and pesticide uptake rate can be interchanged. Furthermore, we have identified the optimal time profile for pesticide spraying rate. This profile proves effective in minimizing both the pest population and the associated costs. To provide a practical illustration of our analytical findings and to showcase the impact of key parameters on the system’s dynamics, we conducted numerical simulations. These simulations are conducted employing the generalized Adams–Bashforth–Moulton method, which allowed us to vividly demonstrate the real-world implications of our research.

Analyzing crop production: Unraveling the impact of pests and pesticides through a fractional model

The continuous growth of the human population raises concerns about food, fiber, and agricultural insecurity. Meeting the escalating demand for agricultural products due to this population surge makes protecting crops from pests becomes imperative. While farmers use chemical pesticides as crop protectors, the extensive use of these chemicals adversely affects both human health and the environment. In this research work, we formulate a nonlinear mathematical model using the Caputo fractional (CF) operator to investigate the effects of pesticides on crop yield dynamics. We assume that pesticides are sprayed proportional to the density of pest density and pests not entirely reliant on crops. The feasibility of every possible nonnegative equilibrium and its stability characteristics are explored utilizing the stability theory of fractional differential equations. Our model analysis reveals that in a continuous spray approach, the roles of pesticide abatement rate and pesticide uptake rate can be interchanged. Furthermore, we have identified the optimal time profile for pesticide spraying rate. This profile proves effective in minimizing both the pest population and the associated costs. To provide a practical illustration of our analytical findings and to showcase the impact of key parameters on the system’s dynamics, we conducted numerical simulations. These simulations are conducted employing the generalized Adams–Bashforth–Moulton method, which allowed us to vividly demonstrate the real-world implications of our research.

Analysis of the Factors Affecting the Deposition Coverage of Air-Assisted Electrostatic Spray on Tomato Leaves

In order to investigate the effects of various factors (charging voltage, spray distance and spray pattern) on the deposition coverage of tomato leaves, the Box–Behnken surface response methodology was used to design an outdoor air-assisted electrostatic spraying experiment with three factors and three levels. The deposition coverage of tomato leaves in the upper, middle and lower layers was collected under different polarity charging voltages (0, +10 kV, −10 kV), spray distances (1, 3, 5 m) and spray patterns (ascending spray, descending spray, fixed height spray). Regression analysis and variance analysis were performed on the experimental data to determine the optimal working parameters. The results showed that (1) spray distance is the most important factor affecting the droplet coverage rate in the process of air-assisted electrostatic spraying; (2) the droplet coverage rate of air-assisted electrostatic spraying is optimal when the charging voltage polarity is negative voltage, the spray distance is 2.75 m, and the spray pattern is descending spray. The following conclusions were obtained. (1) In air-assisted electrostatic spraying, the distribution of air flow had the greatest effect on droplet deposition on tomato leaf surface. (2) Compared with air-assisted non-electrostatic spray, air-assisted electrostatic spray had a better deposition effect.

Spray Angle and Uniformity of the Flat Fan Nozzle of Deep Loosener Fertilizer for Intra-Soil Application of Fertilizers

This paper deals with the problem of predetermining the spray angle and uniformity of the flat fan sprayer with a semicircular impact surface for the intra-soil application of liquid mineral fertilizers. The jet impact on a round splash plate and radial atomization properties are investigated theoretically, the formation features of the spray with an obtuse angle are studied in a geometrical way, and the design search of the nozzle shape and optimization calculations are performed using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations and then verified experimentally. It was revealed that the spray rate and spray angle can be adjusted by changing the parameter s, and when the spray angle is within s = 0–0.2 mm, it forms spray angles with range of 140°–175°. The spraying angle, in turn, shows the potential length of the tillage knife in accordance with the undersoil cavity dimensions. A spray uniformity of up to 74% was achieved, which is sufficient for applied studies and for intra-soil application operations. According to the investigations and field experiments, it can be concluded that the designed nozzle is applicable for the intra-soil application of liquid mineral fertilizers. The use of flat fan nozzles that form a spraying band under the soil cavity and along the entire length of the tillage knife ensures a highly efficient mixing process, the liquid mineral fertilizers with treated soil (particles) positively contributing to plant maturation.

Investigating the Dynamics of Bayoud Disease in Date Palm Trees and Optimal Control Analysis

The fungus Fusarium oxysporum (f.sp. albedinis) causes Bayoud disease. It is one of the epiphytotic diseases that affects a wide range of palm species and has no known cure at present. However, preventive measures can be taken to reduce the effects of the disease. Bayoud disease has caused enormous economic losses due to decreased crop yield and quality. Therefore, it is essential to develop a mathematical model for the dynamics of the disease to propose some affordable methods for disease management. In this study, we propose a novel mathematical model that describes the transmission dynamics of the disease in date palm trees. The model incorporates various factors such as the contact rate of the fungi with date palm trees, the utilization of fungicides, and the introduction of a quarantine compartment to prevent disease dissemination. We first prove a few key properties of the proposed model to ensure that the model is well-posed and suitable for numerical investigations. We establish that the model has a unique positive solution that is bounded and stable over time. We use sensitivity analysis to identify the parameters that have the greatest effect on the reproduction number R0 and illustrate this effect graphically. We then formulate an optimal control problem to identify the most suitable and cost-effective disease control approaches. As a first approach, we solely focus on the application of fungicide to susceptible trees and determine the best spray rates for a greater decrease in exposed and infected trees. Secondly, we emphasize quarantining exposed and infected trees at optimal quarantine rates. Finally, we explore the combined effect of fungicide spraying and isolating infected trees on disease control. The findings of the last approach turn out to be the most rewarding and cost-effective for minimizing infections in date palm trees.

Design and test of target application system between rice plants based on light and tactile sensing

Excessive chemical spraying can lead to waste, damage rice plants, and reduce yield. To resolve this problem, the precise spraying of interplant areas through targeting methods was investigated in this study. The touch-sensing data for identification and positioning was extracted by the trigger rule of binocular diffuse reflection sensors. Wavelet transform decomposition is used to extract time-domain and frequency-domain features from identification data. These combined features build a rice plant identification model based on support vector machine. The model could determine whether the light sensing system was triggered by rice plants or weed. Positioning data was divided into several regions based on the light sensing system. Then, maximum voltage was extracted from the positioning regions. The relative position of the rice plants was determined by fitting previous coordinates and maximum values. Finally, the nozzle position was corrected by the lateral movement of robot arms to achieve the precise targeted spraying. Field performance tests showed that the targeted intermittent spraying had 12.78% and 17.66% less spraying coverage rates in the non-targeted root and interline areas, respectively, and 21.9% more spraying coverage rates in the targeted interplant areas. The overall spraying dosages were 7.81 and 9.41 L for the targeted intermittent and non-targeted continuous spraying, respectively; the spraying dosage saved was 18%. The targeting application system proposed in this paper can achieve a significant reduction in chemical dosage. This research results provide a practical method for reduced herbicide application in rice paddies.

A decentralized control strategy for improved batch tablet coating process operation

This paper proposes a control strategy for batch tablet film-coating processes using readily available process instrumentation. Outlet air conditions (temperature and relative humidity), which impact coating quality, are controlled by the manipulation of inlet air temperature and coating spray rate. Controller design, tuning and validation rely on the use of a dynamic process simulator, calibrated using data collected from a pilot plant coating unit. The final 2 × 2 decentralized PI controller demonstrated good performance for both setpoint tracking and disturbance rejection in simulation. Additionally, controlled variable setpoints were determined to maximize plant profits considering batch duration and energy consumption as optimization criteria. For the case study considered, the total batch processing time can potentially be reduced by 40 % while simultaneously reducing energy usage by 30 %, in comparison with the more conservative fixed recipe approach typically adopted in production.

An optical investigation on macro spray characteristics of convergent-divergent ducted fuel injection under high ambient pressures

The fuel-air mixing process can be improved via straight (ST) ducted fuel injection along with the risk of greater heat transfer loss due to prolonged spray tip penetration (STP) and spray impingement. We proposed the convergent-divergent (CD) duct spray in this study to produce acceptable STP and wider spray cone angle (SCA) for improving engine efficiency. STP and SCA are closely related to ambient pressure. This paper aims to explore the influence of ambient pressure on the macro spray characteristics of CD duct spray for better fuel-air mixing with the analysis of spray air entrainment (SAE). The Schlieren system was used to record the spray morphology of different duct sprays under ambient pressures of 20, 30, 40, and 50 bar. The results showed that compared with free spray, with the increase of ambient pressure, the application of CD duct can more effectively improve the SCA increase rate of free spray. With the ambient pressure changes from 20 to 50 bar, the SCA increase rate is up to 20.17% for free spray, and the SCA increase rate increased more than three times to 76.96% with ST3 duct and more than eight times to 173.06% with CD 4.5 duct compared with free spray respectively. The SAE of CD3 and ST3 duct sprays is higher than that of other sprays. CD4.5 and CD6 duct sprays reduce the probability of spray-wall impingement but along with a certain reduced amount of SAE.

Waste Utilization in Horticulture: An Overview

Waste management in horticulture plays a pivotal role in achieving environmental sustainability and optimizing resource utilization. One of the primary methods for waste utilization is composting, which involves the decomposition of organic waste materials to produce nutrient-rich compost. Compost serves as an excellent soil amendment, enhancing soil fertility and promoting plant growth. Additionally, anaerobic digestion offers a valuable approach for converting organic waste into biogas, a renewable energy source that can be used for heating, electricity generation, and vehicle fuel. Furthermore, fermentation processes can be employed to convert fruit and vegetable waste into valuable products such as animal feed and biofuels. The by-products of fermentation, including yeast and enzymes, have applications in various industries, contributing to the circular economy model. Advancements in precision agriculture and smart waste management systems have revolutionized waste utilization in horticulture. Technologies such as GPS, GIS mapping, wireless sensor networks and big data analytics enable data-driven, decision-making and optimize resource allocation. Precision planting, targeted spraying, automated pruning/harvesting and variable rate irrigation are among the innovative practices facilitated by these technologies, leading to increased productivity and efficiency in horticultural operations. Moreover, waste utilization in horticulture contributes to mitigating environmental pollution and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. By diverting organic waste from landfills and incineration, the emission of methane, a potent greenhouse gas, is minimized. Instead, organic waste is repurposed into valuable resources, thereby closing the loop on waste streams and promoting a circular economy.

An Original UV Adhesive Watermelon Grafting Method, the Grafting Device, and Experimental Verification

This study is aimed at traditional vegetable grafting using a large number of plastic clips, which cannot be recycled in time and cause serious pollution within the planting environment. This paper proposes a new grafting method based on a UV adhesive instead of plastic clips. First of all, a UV adhesive spray grafting device was designed. The structure includes seedling adsorption positioning mechanisms, a butt joint mechanism, a handling mechanism, a spray valve, a UV curing lamp, etc., to facilitate the adhesive spraying. For the rootstock and scion, a horizontal, lateral seedling and negative pressure adsorption and positioning method is adopted, with fluid dynamics simulation of the diameter and quantity of the adsorption holes in the rootstock adsorption mechanism carried out using Fluent 2022 R1 software and completion of the optimization of the parameters of the adsorption and positioning mechanism. The fluid volume method is used to simulate the adsorption and positioning mechanism. For optimization, the volume of fluid method (VOF) and the discrete particle method (DPM) are used in a coupled simulation of the UV adhesive spraying process, and the value range of the spraying influencing factors is determined: the selected glue pressure, atomization pressure, and spraying height for three-factor, three-level orthogonal simulation. A grafting test is also verification, deriving the significance ranking of their impact on the success rate of the grafting: atomization pressure > spraying height > glue pressure. Under the condition of a 0.25 Mpa atomization pressure, a 0.15 Mpa glue supply pressure, and a 10 mm spraying height, the grafting success rate for watermelon was 100%, the effective spraying rate was 83.03%, the healing success rate was 94.5%, and the length of the film was 7.86 mm. The results of the study can provide a research basis for the research and development of new types of spraying and grafting robot technology.

Study on pressurization characteristics of single-screw steam compressor with water spray cooling under fluctuating heat source operating conditions

For a water-injected single-screw steam compressor (SSSC), the performance of the compressor is significantly affected by the water spray rate. However, the precise relationship between the water injection parameters and the operating parameters of the heat source under fluctuating heat source operating conditions (FHSOC) has not been elucidated. This paper introduces a constructed thermodynamic analysis model for the wet compression process under FHSOC aiming to explore the impact of fluctuating heat source parameters such as inlet steam temperature (IST) and inlet steam dryness (ISD) on the thermodynamic performance parameters of the compressor. The operational performance of the SSSC is then analyzed and compared under two distinct conditions: optimal water spray rate (OWSR) and fixed water spray rate (FWSR). The results demonstrate that when the IST of the SSSC increases within the range of 375 K–400 K, there is an initial decline followed by an increase in both the leakage rate and volumetric efficiency. Simultaneously, displacement and power consumption decrease, while adiabatic indicated efficiency and OWSR increase. Within this range, an optimal synergy is observed between IST and water spray parameters enabling the compressor to exhibit superior lubrication, sealing, and pressurization performance. On the other hand, when the ISD increases within the range of 0.92–1, the total heat transfer in the compression chamber decreases, and the leakage, OWSR, displacement, power consumption, adiabatic indicated efficiency, and volumetric efficiency all show varying degrees of increase. Regarding the volumetric efficiency corresponding to the OWSR, the impact of ISD on volumetric efficiency surpasses that of IST to a significant degree.