Synergistic surface plasmon resonance effect of Ag and S-scheme heterojunction in Ag/AgBr/Bi24O31Cl10 towards enhanced enrofloxacin removal: Performance, degradation pathways and synergistic mechanism.

Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spin trapping applied to Chardonnay wines: impact of phenolic content and ethanol

Photosensitivity in the uncatalyzed CHD–bromate Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction revealed by ESR spin trapping

Ultra-high dose rate (UHDR) radiotherapy has been shown in preclinical studies to reduce normal tissue toxicity without compromising tumour control, a phenomenon referred to as the Flash effect. The radiochemical and biological mechanisms responsible for this effect remain unclear. This study investigates radical formation and oxygen depletion under UHDR and conventional dose rate (CDR) conditions to gain mechanistic insight. Radical formation was investigated using electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy with both spin trapping and spin probe techniques. Oxygen consumption was monitored continuously during irradiation to complement radical yield measurements. E3 medium containing either spin traps (DMPO, DEPMPO, BMPO) or spin probes (CMH, TMTH, CAT1H) was prepared under hypoxic, physioxic, and normoxic conditions. Irradiations were performed at the Electron Linac for beams with high Brilliance and low Emittance at the Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR) with 30 MeV electrons across a broad range of dose rates (0.1 Gy s-1-105 Gy s-1). Spin probe measurements enabled consistent comparisons between CDR and UHDR, revealing a significant dependence of spin concentration on both oxygenation and dose rate. In contrast, spin trapping showed reduced radical yields with decreasing oxygen levels, but no significant dose-rate dependence. Direct comparisons between UHDR and CDR were limited by differences in the decay kinetics of the spin adducts. Oxygen measurements confirmed a reduced oxygen consumption at UHDR, with the extent of depletion strongly dependent on initial oxygen concentration. The results support the hypothesis that UHDR conditions promote radical-radical recombination, shifting the reaction equilibrium and reducing the pool of radicals available to react in the homogeneous chemical phase, particularly with oxygen. The combined application of ESR spin trapping, spin probes, and real-time oxygen measurements offers complementary insight into dose-rate-dependent radical processes.

In this study, a binary CuBi 2 O 4 /CeVO 4 heterostructure with outstanding photocatalytic perfor-mance was successfully synthesized through a straightforward strategy. A comprehensive array of characterization techniques, including X-ray diffraction (XRD), nitrogen adsorp-tion/desorption, fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), ultraviolet-visible diffuse re-flectance spectroscopy (UV-Vis DRS), field emission scanning and transmission electron micros-copy (FE-SEM and TEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Photoluminescence (PL) and photoelectrochemical analysis, were employed to thoroughly characterize the catalysts. The results reveal that CBO/CVO-1:1 exhibits remarkable visible-light absorption capability and supe-rior charge carrier separation and transfer efficiency. As a result, CBO/CVO-1:1 demonstrates exceptional photocatalytic activity for tetracycline (TC) degradation under visible light irradia-tion, achieving a degradation efficiency of approximately 69.8% within 120 minutes, while the degradation efficiencies of pure CuBi 2 O 4 and CeVO 4 are only 47.9% and 42.4%, respectively. Moreover, the apparent reaction rate of CBO/CVO-1:1 (approximately 0.00969 min-1) is 1.73 times and 1.93 times higher than those of CuBi 2 O 4 (0.00561 min -1 ) and CeVO 4 (0.00501 min -1 ), respectively. Radical trapping experiments and electron spin resonance (ESR) measurements con-firm that the primary active species, superoxide (•O 2 -) radicals, play a crucial role in the photo-catalytic degradation of TC. Based on these experimental observations, a plausible type-II het-erojunction photocatalytic mechanism for TC degradation by the CuBi 2 O 4 /CeVO 4 heterostruc-ture is proposed.

Al/Alq3 defect states induced charge and spin trapping in p-Si/CoFe2O4/Alq3/Al organic spintronic interfaces

Evidence for singlet oxygen production from indocyanine green by electron paramagnetic resonance.

This study defines the mechanisms of vasodilation to acetylcholine (ACh) in arterioles from patients with and without coronary artery disease (CAD). Human adipose arterioles (HAA) dissected from discarded surgical samples were cannulated and pressurized at 60mmHg for measurement of diameter changes by videomicroscopy. No difference in baseline dose response to ACh was observed between non-CAD and CAD patients. L-NAME, NO synthase inhibitor, reduced dilation in both groups but to a greater extent in non-CAD. Peg-CAT, H2O2 scavenger, attenuated response to ACh in non-CAD but not in CAD. Inhibition of NOX4 reduced dilation in non-CAD, whereas NOX2 inhibition attenuated dilation in CAD. The SOD mimetic tempol partially normalized the NO- and H2O2-dependent dilation in CAD arterioles. EPR spin trapping indicated that absolute NO signal after ACh + A-23187 stimulation was higher in non-CAD than in CAD arteries. Western blot analysis revealed higher expression of monomeric eNOS but lower expression of dimeric eNOS and phosphorylated eNOS at Ser-1177 in CAD arteries. Finally, we found higher mRNA and protein expression of NOX2 in CAD arteries. These results provide new evidence that in normal human arterioles, both NO and H2O2 significantly contribute to ACh dilation, with substantial involvement of NOX4 in the H2O2-mediated response. In CAD, the contribution of both NO and H2O2 is diminished, while an NO/H2O2-independent hyperpolarizing pathway becomes predominant. Mechanistically, the NOX4-to-NOX2 switch may play a key role in mediating the change of vasodilator mechanisms in human arterioles during CAD.

ABSTRACT Reactions of the Lewis acidic, cationic bismuth compound [BiMe 2 (SbF 6 )] ( 1 ) with the spin trap α‐phenyl‐ N ‐ tert butyl‐nitrone (PBN) yield simple Lewis acid/base adducts [BiMe 2 (PBN)(SbF 6 )] ( 2 ) and [BiMe 2 (PBN) 2 ][SbF 6 ] ( 3 ). Such adducts have, for the first time, been fully characterized for the frequently used spin trap PBN. The ability of 2 and 3 to release PBN‐trapped methyl radicals under thermal conditions is investigated. This is compared to the ability of a small series of simple neutral organobismuth compounds BiR 3 (R = Me, n Bu, i Pr, t Bu, CF 3 ) and one mixed aryl/alkyl‐substituted bismuth complex to transfer carbon‐based radicals to PBN. Applied analytical techniques include NMR spectroscopy, elemental analysis, mass spectrometry, single‐crystal X‐ray diffraction analysis, and EPR spectroscopy.

We report a water-soluble conjugated oligoelectrolyte (COE) composed of carbazole-benzophenone, COE-CbzBP, that exhibits photogenerated spin-correlated radical pair (SCRP) behavior sensitive to static electric fields from DNA but not from lipid bilayers. The SCRP forms from a thermally activated, spin-polarized state enabled by partial π-conjugation disruption at the donor-acceptor (carbazole-benzophenone) nitrogen-carbon (N-C) junction, which facilitates a twisted intramolecular charge-transfer (TICT) geometry. This state minimizes the singlet-triplet energy gap (ΔEST = 0.12 eV), radical-pair exchange coupling (JRP ∼ ΔEST/2), and charge separation free energy (ΔGCS) in both DNA (-0.19 eV) and lipid bilayers (-0.55 eV). Room-temperature continuous-wave electron paramagnetic resonance (CW-EPR) reveals a photogenerated spin-polarized singlet for COE-CbzBP that splits upon DNA association, consistent with modulation of JRP and hyperfine coupling (Ax), presumably via electric field-spin coupling. No spin-polarized signal was observed under dark, cryogenic conditions, or in liposomes, but was quenched by the spin trap 4-POBN. Transient absorption and spectroelectrochemistry confirmed magnetic-field sensitive long-lived excited-state absorption features attributed to charge-separated states 3[Cbz•+-BP•-]*, which were lengthened by DNA, and quenched in lipid bilayers and 4-POBN. Quantum chemical simulations show that planar geometries (lipid-like) increase ΔEST by 0.31 eV compared to TICT-optimized structures. This geometry-dependent modulation explains the absence of SCRP signatures in rigid environments, underscoring the importance of TICT states, minimized ΔEST, and favorable ΔGCS for achieving room-temperature SCRP generation. These findings establish design principles for TICT-enabled molecules exhibiting qubit-like behavior that operate under ambient and biologically relevant conditions, with direct implications for quantum information science (QIS).

Despite decades of intensive study, the mechanism of many electrocatalytic reactions involving reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) remain poorly understood due to their complex, multistep, and interface-dependent nature. Computational studies generally suggest that the stabilization of various adsorbed radical intermediates such as hydroxyl (OH•), hydroperoxyl (OOH•), or oxygen atoms (O•) is key to enhancing the kinetics of ORR.1 Despite a clear computational picture of the importance of these species, their direct experimental detection and quantification, particularly under reaction conditions, remain rare in the literature.Here, we have used a novel strategy based on redox-active spin traps as a method to identify and quantify these reactive oxygen intermediates in situ.2,3,4 Typically, spin traps molecules to trap and stabilize short-lived radical species for detection ex situ using electron spin resonance (ESR). However, the use of a redox active spin trap allows for the application of electrochemical methods to investigate these processes. Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) is an ideal technique to measure the generation of the resulting redox-active spin trapped adducts because it allows for the sensitive local detection and quantification of dilute quantities of species in real-time.5 This allows for the design of in situ experiments that can measure and quantify with high spatial and temporal resolution.We have validated this technique during the generation hydroxyl radicals on boron-doped diamond,2 during the corrosion of lead-acid battery cathodes3 and during the ORR at Fe-N-C electrocatalysts.4 In this talk, we will focus on the expansion of our methodologies to discern on the generation of ROS discharged in solution vs those remaining adsorbed on the electrode. Furthermore, the use of a variety of spin trapping molecules dedicated to different ROS intermediates will be highlighted. Our new technique provides unprecedented insight into the quantity and identity of ROS formed at a variety of electrochemical interfaces, offering new evidence for the formation of both main and minority products in operando. w.[1] Norskov, J.K. et al. J. Phys. Chem. B, 2004, 108, 46, 17886–17892. DOI: 10.1021/jp047349j.[2] Barroso-Martinez, J. et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2022, 144, 41, 18896–18907. DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c06278.[3] Asserghine, A. et al. Chem. Sci., 2023, 14, 12292-12298. DOI: 10.1039/d3sc04736a.[4] Putnam. S.T., et al. Chem. Sci., 2024, 15, 10036-10045. DOI: 10.1039/d4sc01553c.[5] Putnam, S.T., et al. Anal. Chem., 2025, DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.4c06996.

Lithium metal batteries (LMBs) are a promising technology due to lithium’s high theoretical specific capacity and low reduction potential, which can result in batteries with energy densities surpassing current state of the art lithium-ion batteries.1 However, the highly reductive lithium metal anode reacts with the electrolyte during cycling, resulting in capacity loss. These reactions form a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI), and electrolyte design is a key strategy to improve the cycling stability and Coulombic efficiency of LMBs. Recently, solvation structure engineering via high concentration (HCE) and localized high concentration electrolytes (LHCEs) has proven to be effective in promoting an inorganic-rich SEI and enabling >99% Coulombic efficiencies.2–4 Yet, the mechanisms by which electrolyte components are consumed in SEI formation reactions and the nature of these reactions remains largely unknown, especially given recent literature suggesting that diluents in LHCEs may play a role in SEI formation5,6, which is in conflict with the previously accepted idea that diluents are inert.In this research, we employ electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy with spin traps to study the radical intermediates that are generated during electrolyte reduction in LHCEs and HCEs. We reduce electrolyte within an electrochemical cell which also contains a spin trap. The EPR spectra of trapped radicals enables identification of key radical intermediates generated during SEI formation. We apply this approach to study high performance fluorinated electrolyte solvents, including 1,1,2,2-Tetrafluoroethyl 2,2,3,3-tetrafluoropropylether (TTE) and bis(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl) ether (BTFE), which have been employed as diluents in localized high concentration electrolytes (LHCEs). Further, we use 19F and 7Li solution NMR to probe changes in solvation structure and consumption of electrolyte components during cycling. Taken together, this work provides insight to the mechanisms that underpin SEI formation in high Coulombic efficiency systems, enabling next generation electrolyte design.References K. G. Gallagher et al., Energy Environ. Sci., 7, 1555–1563 (2014).X. Cao et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118, e2020357118 (2021).X. Cao et al., Nat Energy, 4, 796–805 (2019).X. Fan et al., Chem, 4, 174–185 (2018).R. May, J. C. Hestenes, N. A. Munich, and L. E. Marbella, Journal of Power Sources, 553, 232299 (2023).Y. Zheng et al., J. Mater. Chem. A, 7, 25047–25055 (2019).

Electrochemical energy storage and conversion plays a pivotal role in the renewable energy supply chain, encompassing flow batteries, electrolyzers, and fuel cells (FCs). The key materials for these technologies are polymer-based ion-conducting membrane electrolytes, which allow the selective conduction of protons or hydroxide ions in an acidic or basic environment, respectively. It is acknowledged that FCs are a fundamental component of the European Strategic Energy Technologies (SET) Plan and have a significant role to play in the shift to a future low-carbon economy. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) have already demonstrated technological maturity, but PEMFCs require the use of expensive and scarce precious metals (Pt, Pd, Ru, Ir). Conversely, Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (AEMFCs) are a rapidly developing fuel cell technology that could be more technically and economically feasible due to the fact that non-PGM metals can catalyze the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) at high pH values and less expensive hydrocarbon membranes can be used. However, for the AEMFC to become commercially viable, some obstacles must first be overcome. One of the most significant is the degradation of the hydroxide-conducting ionomers within the cathode catalyst layer which leads to the agglomeration of catalyst nanoparticles over time and reduced cell durability [1,2]. Ionomer degradation can lead to a decrease in the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) performance, primarily due to the deterioration of the carbon gas diffusion layer bonded by anion-conducting ionomers. The former phenomenon can reduce the catalytic activity performance.Our research aimed to study the degradation caused by radical oxygen species in an alkaline environment of the operando FCs. The particular emphasis is put on the abatement of their harmful effects by scavenging and identification of the radicals formed. Applying OPERANDO EPR techniques we have demonstrated radical formation during AEM FC operation on PGM and non-PGM catalysts, including those obtained by doping multi-wall carbon nanotubes with nitrogen and iron (Fe-N-MWCNT) [3,4]. As illustrated in Figure 1, EPR spectra of DMPO-OH adducts recorded on a cathode covered with Pt/C catalysts of the fuel cell placed in the spectrometer cavity confirm the formation of hydroxyl radicals during FC operation. Furthermore, the interaction of radicals with ionomer models was the subject of theoretical (DFT) calculations. The findings enabled a comparison of the susceptibility of ionomer components (cation, chain) to radical attack.A competitive kinetics (CK) approach, based on the spin trapping EPR technique, was used to study the scavenging properties of the various catalytic systems studied, which include potential oxide scavengers (Equation 1). Equation 1 V/v - 1 = kcC/kDMPO [DMPO]Assuming the linear plot of (V/v - 1) versus [C]/[DMPO] (CK plot) is valid, the slope gives the ratio of kC/kDMPO, and may be used to measure the catalyst's ability to quench hydroxyl radicals (i.e., a higher value for (V/v - 1) corresponds to greater efficiency) [5]. Since ceria is commonly used as a radical scavenger in acidic media we studied the effectiveness of CeO2 in removing radicals depending on pH in the range of 4 to 11. CK plots for CeO2 in pH of 7 and 11 (Figure 2) indicate that ceria is even more effective in radical scavenging in alkaline than acidic environments. The CK plot slope at a pH of 11 is higher than at a pH of 4, indicating higher hydroxyl radicals’ quenching ability. Acknowledgments This work was supported by the National Science Centre (NCN) project OPUS-27, No. 2024/53/B/ST4/01150. This work was partially funded by the Nancy & Stephen Grand Technion Energy Program (GTEP); and the Israeli Smart Transportation Research Center (ISTRC).

Understanding the reactivity of actinide peroxides is critical for predicting the behavior of spent nuclear fuel in radiolytic environments. Herein, we report the synthesis and characterization of a lithium neptunyl(VI) hydroxo peroxo compound (LiNp), which is isostructural to the uranyl analogue (LiU). Single-crystal X-ray diffraction reveals that LiNp contains both [NpO2(O2)3]4- and [NpO2(OH)4]2- units stabilized by Li+ and hydrogen bonding and Raman spectroscopy shows systematic redshifts in neptunyl vibrational modes relative to uranyl. DFT calculations highlight the importance of secondary coordination in reproducing vibrational and structural features, but challenges remain with correctly modeling strong sigma donors. Solid-state EPR spectroscopy and DFT confirm superoxide stabilization within LiU and calculations suggest favorability of the analogous radical species in LiNp. Solution state EPR spectroscopy with the radical spin trap 5-tert-butoxycarbonyl-5-methyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide (BMPO) reveal evidence of superoxide in the LiU and LiNp phases and suggests stabilization of superoxide within actinyl triperoxide complexes, forming [AnO2(O2)2(O)2•]3-.

As a cost-effective and environmentally benign photocatalyst, hydrothermal carbonation carbon (HTCC) has been extensively studied in the fields of resource utilization and environmental remediation. In this study, HTCC photocatalysts with efficient photocatalytic performances were prepared from straw using acid modification under hydrothermal conditions. The as-prepared HTCC photocatalysts were applied to the degradation of microcystin-LR and the reduction of aqueous Cr(VI). The critical role of acid modification in the photocatalytic performances of the HTCC photocatalysts was systematically investigated. The results demonstrated that acid-modified photocatalysts exhibited a significantly enhanced removal efficiency for Cr(VI) and microcystin-LR under visible light irradiation. A series of characterization techniques, including Raman spectroscopy and N2 adsorption–desorption analysis, revealed that the superior photocatalytic activities of acid-modified HTCC could be attributed to its higher aromatization level, enhanced light-harvesting ability, and increased concentration of active sites compared with pristine HTCC. Furthermore, electron spin resonance (ESR) and trapping experiments indicated that hydrogen radicals (·H) served as the primary active species in the photocatalytic Cr(VI) reduction of straw-based HTCC. This work provides both practical and theoretical insights into the resource utilization of agricultural waste and the remediation of environmental pollution.

Advancing EPR spectroscopy with BMPO for UVA-induced radical detection in skin: Refining spin trapping and uncovering glutathione-dependent oxidative mechanisms.

Tobacco and cannabis smoke are both complex chemical mixtures generated through combustion of biomass material. The presence of free radicals in tobacco smoke has been established for nearly seven decades. Despite similarities between cannabis and tobacco smoke and the known presence of radicals in the latter, analysis of free radicals in cannabis smoke has yet to be conducted. In this work, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy was used to detect short-lived radicals and environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) in cannabis smoke. Spin-trapping techniques were employed to aid in identification of the short-lived radicals. Congruent with findings from studies conducted on tobacco smoke, short-lived free radicals were detected in the gas phase, and EPFRs were detected in the particle phase of cannabis smoke. Gas phase results indicate the presence of oxygen-centered radicals in cannabis smoke, though the shape of the resulting EPR spectra differs slightly from that of tobacco smoke. Particle phase results for cannabis match well with those from previous studies conducted on tobacco smoke, regardless of the spin trap used (or lack thereof). Quantitative findings indicate that cannabis smoke contains approximately the same radical concentration as tobacco smoke, on the order of 1015 gas-phase spins and 1014 particle-phase spins per cannabis preroll or tobacco cigarette. The impacts of burning method (continuous vs puffing) and cannabinoid composition on radical concentrations were also investigated here. While puffing was observed to lower radical concentrations, the cannabinoid composition of the strain of cannabis burned had no observable impact on the amount or identity of free radicals detected.

The photoinitiation properties of two porphyrins were evaluated for the free-radical photopolymerization (FRP) of a bio-based acrylated monomer, i.e., soybean oil acrylate (SOA). Their combination with various co-initiators, such as a tertiary amine as electron donor (MDEA), an iodonium salt as electron acceptor (Iod), as well as two biosourced co-initiators used as H-donors (cysteamine and N-acetylcysteine), makes them highly efficient photoinitiating systems for FRP under visible light irradiation. Electron paramagnetic resonance spin trapping (EPR ST) demonstrated the formation of highly reactive radical species, and fluorescence and laser flash photolysis highlighted the chemical pathways followed by the porphyrin-based systems under light irradiation. High acrylate conversions up to 96% were obtained with these different systems at different irradiation wavelengths (LEDs@385 nm, 405 nm, 455 nm, and 530 nm), in laminate or under air. The final crosslinked and bio-based porphyrin-based materials were used for the full photo-oxidation in water of an azo-dye (acid red 14) and under UV irradiation. These materials have been involved in three successive depollution cycles without any reduction in their efficiency.

Background: Ascorbate is located at the most downstream end of radical scavenging reactions and reacts with various free radicals to form ascorbyl free radical (AFR). In this study, we assessed AFR levels in whole blood samples obtained from perioperative goats under cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) using electron spin resonance (ESR) spectrometry without adding any spin trap, which the stability of AFR made possible. The direct radical scavenging activity of the plasma was evaluated for hydroxyl radicals by the spin trapping method.Materials and methods: This is an experimental animal study on goats (n = 19). Blood samples were collected at eight time points during the heart surgery using CPB. The whole blood sample was aspirated in a disposable ESR flat cell, and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) of the amount of AFR relative to those of the induction of anesthesia were quantified using ESR spectroscopy at each time point of the heart surgery. The scavenging activity of the plasma against hydroxyl radical and DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) was also evaluated using ESR spectroscopy with the spin trapping method; a dose-response curve for each free radical was drawn to estimate the half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of plasma during heart surgery. The reciprocals of IC50 were used as the indicators of scavenging activities.Results: The AFR level detected in goat blood significantly increased from the start of CPB (95% CI: 1.09-1.39 ) and remained significantly higher than the preoperative level during aortic clamping (1.15-1.73 at aortic cross-clamping, 1.17-1.74 one hour after clamping, and 1.16-1.52 two hours after clamping). The AFR returned to the preoperative levels after aortic declamping. The free radical scavenging activities of plasma sampled at aortic cross-clamping and from two hours after clamping to the end of surgery significantly increased against hydroxyl radicals (p < 0.05). Scavenging activity was not observed against DPPH.Conclusion: Real-time assessment of oxidative stress was successfully conducted by ESR spectroscopy of whole blood without a spin trap. The biphasic increase in AFR during the open-heart surgery might reflect the production of free radicals under oxidative stress due to the cardiac surgery. The first phase might be due to inflammatory responses after CPB induction, and the second might reflect production of free radicals after reperfusion. We believe that measuring AFR levels in fresh whole blood would be a simple but informative indicator of oxidative stress during surgery.

Single‐atom catalysts, which feature atomically dispersed active sites that significantly enhance catalytic efficiency, still face persistent challenges in synthesis and stability. This study aims to develop efficient and stable highly dispersed materials as a promising alternative. Here, a new carbon nitride (UO) material with structure close to C 6 N 7 , where heptazine rings are connected via C–C bonds, was employed as a support. This material was further coupled with narrow‐bandgap magnetic Fe 3 O 4 to form an intimate contact interface, which promotes carrier separation and catalytic activity. Meanwhile, the extended conjugation in UO also facilitates broad spectral absorption and electron transport. In the visible‐light‐driven oxidation of benzylamine, the 4.8% Fe 3 O 4 /UO catalyst shows optimal performance, achieving a conversion rate of 97.6% within 6 h. This outstanding performance can be primarily attributed to the synergistic effects of high dispersion, efficient charge separation, and broad spectral response. Free radical trapping experiments and electron spin resonance spectroscopy confirmed that the primary active species are holes (h + ) and superoxide radicals (•O 2 − ). This work provides a feasible strategy for constructing low‐cost, easily synthesized, and stable highly dispersed catalysts, while also offering valuable insights for the design of efficient photocatalytic systems for benzylamine coupling reactions.