Species Richness Research Articles

Global Diversity Patterns are Explained by Diversification Rates and Dispersal at Ancient, not Shallow, Timescales.

Explaining global species richness patterns is a major goal of evolution, ecology, and biogeography. These richness patterns are often attributed to spatial variation in diversification rates (speciation minus extinction). Surprisingly, prominent studies of birds, fish, and plants have reported higher speciation and/or diversification rates at higher latitudes, where species richness is lower. We hypothesize that these surprising findings are explained by the focus of those studies on relatively recent macroevolutionary rates, within the last ~20 million years. Here, we analyze global richness patterns among 10,213 squamates (lizards and snakes) and explore their underlying causes. We find that when diversification rates were quantified at more recent timescales, we observed mismatched patterns of rates and richness, similar to previous studies in other taxa. Importantly, diversification rates estimated over longer timescales were instead positively related to geographic richness patterns. These observations may help resolve the paradoxical results of previous studies in other taxa. We found that diversification rates were largely unrelated to climate, even though climate and richness were related. Instead, higher tropical richness was related to ancient occupation of tropical regions, with colonization time the variable that explained the most variation in richness overall. We suggest that large-scale diversity patterns might be best understood by considering climate, deep-time diversification rates, and the time spent in different regions, rather than recent diversification rates alone. [Climate, colonization time, diversification rate, lizards, latitudinal diversity gradient, snakes, species richness].

Macrofaunal Communities Associated with Ecklonia radiata Holdfast Along the Southeast Coast of South Africa

Kelp forests are recognized as biodiversity hotspots and ecosystem engineers, while the macroinvertebrates linked with their holdfasts serve as markers of pollution and ecological and environmental change. Notwithstanding the evident ecological and economic importance of this system, no research has been undertaken in South Africa to examine the macroinvertebrate community assemblage patterns within the Ecklonia radiata holdfast, nor the mechanisms driving the observed distribution patterns. This study identified and compared the assemblage patterns of holdfast-associated macroinvertebrates across several sites using univariate and multivariate approaches, and delineated physical factors influencing invertebrate community organization. The key findings indicated that abundance exhibited little variations among sites, with Dwesa presenting the highest average abundance and Kob-Inn the lowest. Mazeppa exhibited the greatest species richness, succeeded by Dwesa and Nqabara. Beta diversity measured 0.42, with turnover and nestedness contributing equally. Xhorha and Nqabara exhibited the largest local contribution to beta diversity (LCBD) regarding turnover, whereas Mazeppa and Kob-Inn demonstrated the highest LCBD in terms of nestedness. Substantial clustering among sites was observed, with each site harbouring a distinct assemblage of macroinvertebrates. Species that discriminated the sites were Zeuxoides helleri, Cirolana venusticauda and Amphipholis squamata.

Bees, hoverflies and butterflies of Giannutri Island (Tuscan Archipelago, Italy), with the first record of Eumerus narcissi Smith, 1928 (Syrphidae) for Italy (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Anthophila, Diptera: Syrphidae, Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea)

Local pollinator checklists are crucial for biodiversity conservation representing essential foundations for successive ecological and evolutionary studies. The Tuscan Archipelago, protected within a National Park in Italy, hosts a largely undiscovered pollinator diversity, especially on the small Giannutri Island. This study focuses on bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Anthophila), hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae) and butterflies (Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea). Bees on Giannutri are poorly documented, with no comprehensive checklist available, while hoverflies remain understudied across the Archipelago. Although butterfly data are more extensive, they consist mainly of sporadic records. To unveil the pollinator fauna of Giannutri, we sampled the island over four years (2021–2024), recording: 14 bee species (eight new to the island and one new to the Archipelago), 14 hoverfly species (all new to the island, three new to the Archipelago and one new to Italy) and 23 butterfly species (10 new to the island). The presence of Eumerus narcissi Smith, 1928 is of pivotal importance representing a new species for the Italian fauna. Among bees, the presence of Nomada sheppardana (Kirby, 1802) is reported for the first time in the Archipelago, while the new record of Bombus xanthopus (Kriechbaumer, 1870) extends the distribution of this sub-endemic species to a fourth island, following Corsica, Capraia, and Elba. The species richness recorded on Giannutri Island aligned with the expectations based on size and isolation in comparison with the other islands of the Archipelago. Giannutri emerges as a noteworthy component of the Tuscan Archipelago and Mediterranean biodiversity highlighting the importance of checklists in conservation studies.

Assessing Natural Variation as a Baseline for Biodiversity Monitoring: The Case of an East Mediterranean Canyon

Accurately assessing the natural variation in biodiversity is crucial as a baseline for monitoring trends and attributing them to natural or anthropogenic drivers. To assess this baseline, we estimated the species richness, composition and abundance of plants, beetles and ants in Evolution Canyon II (Israel), a protected reserve in the Eastern Mediterranean that is known both for its heterogeneity and for faster-than-average climate change. Consecutive sampling over 24 months in three divergent microhabitats of the canyon (south xeric- and north mesic-facing slopes and the valley bottom) during 2019–2021 was conducted using the same methods employed at the same site during 1998–2000, enabling us to also study seasonal and inter-annual variation. Altogether, 459 beetle species, 349 plant species and 47 ant species were found. These taxa exhibit substantial and persistent divergence between canyon slopes. Despite substantial species turnover rates between periods in all the taxa, almost no change was found regarding the biogeographical origins of plant and beetle species composition. In addition, species richness differences between microhabitats persisted between study periods, and year-round sampling revealed many dominant winter-peaking beetle species. These findings reflect the importance of thoroughly surveying diverse taxa, microhabitats, seasons and annual weather patterns when characterizing the natural baseline of a monitoring program.

Soil CO2 and CH4 response to experimental warming under various tree species compositions in a temperate harwood forest

Under climate change, some forest ecosystems appear to be transitioning into net source of carbon dioxide (CO2), raising questions about the future role of soil respiration rate (Rs), which depends on hydroclimatic conditions. Conversely, well-drained forest soils could become more significant sinks of methane (CH4) under warming. The main objective of this study was to assess the effects of artificial soil warming on Rs and CH4 fluxes in a sugar maple forest at the northern limit of Quebec temperate deciduous forests in eastern Canada, and to evaluate the effect of species composition on soil response to warming. We measured Rs and CH4 fluxes during the snow-free period of 2021 and 2022 in 32 plots distributed across three forest types, half of which were artificially heated by approximately 2 °C with heating cables. Forest soils were a very consistent sink for CH4 and it did not respond to artificial soil warming nor was it sensitive to variations in soil moisture, ionic activity in soil solution and forest types. However, we observed an increase in Rs in response to warming in the heated plots, but only up to a threshold of about 15 °C, beyond which Rs started to slow down in respect to the control plots. We also observed a weakening of the exponential relationship between Rs and soil temperature beyond this threshold. This trend varied across the forest types, with hardwood-beech stands being more sensitive to warming than mixedwoods and other hardwoods. This greater response of hardwood-beech stands to warming resulted in a more significant downshift of Rs, starting from a colder temperature threshold, around 10–12 °C. This study highlights a potential plateauing of Rs despite rising soil temperature, at least in eastern Canada’s temperate deciduous forest, but this trend could vary from one forest type to another.

Paleobiogeographic insights gained from ecological niche models: progress and continued challenges

Abstract The spatial distribution of individuals within ecological assemblages and their associated traits and behaviors are key determinants of ecosystem structure and function. Consequently, determining the spatial distribution of species, and how distributions influence patterns of species richness across ecosystems today and in the past, helps us understand what factors act as fundamental controls on biodiversity. Here, we explore how ecological niche modeling has contributed to understanding the spatiotemporal distribution of past biodiversity and past ecological and evolutionary processes. We first perform a semiquantitative literature review to capture studies that applied ecological niche models (ENMs) to the past, identifying 668 studies. We coded each study according to focal taxonomic group, whether and how the study used fossil evidence, whether it relied on evidence or methods in addition to ENMs, spatial scale of the study, and temporal intervals included in the ENMs. We used trends in publication patterns across categories to anchor discussion of recent technical advances in niche modeling, focusing on paleobiogeographic ENM applications. We then explored contributions of ENMs to paleobiogeography, with a particular focus on examining patterns and associated drivers of range dynamics; phylogeography and within-lineage dynamics; macroevolutionary patterns and processes, including niche change, speciation, and extinction; drivers of community assembly; and conservation paleobiogeography. Overall, ENMs are powerful tools for elucidating paleobiogeographic patterns. ENMs are most commonly used to understand Quaternary dynamics, but an increasing number of studies use ENMs to gain important insight into both ecological and evolutionary processes in pre-Quaternary times. Deeper integration with traits and phylogenies may further extend those insights.

Restoration of giant panda habitat requires balancing single‐ and multi‐species benefits

Efforts to restore habitat for wildlife often target single species, with limited consideration of the potential benefits provided to sympatric species. On the basis of range‐wide data from the Fourth National Giant Panda Survey and infrared camera trapping, we used species distribution models to project the outcomes of five habitat restoration scenarios—designed to benefit giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca)—for giant pandas as well as for sympatric birds and mammals. Scenario outcomes, particularly those involving the conversion of plantation forests and shrublands into suitable forests, demonstrated a significant enhancement in giant panda habitat suitability, but with contrasting effects for sympatric species. Moreover, while restoration of giant panda habitat may enhance species richness and functional diversity, especially when shrublands are converted into forests, such action could also reduce phylogenetic diversity. Our findings suggest that single‐species habitat restoration may have negative outcomes for sympatric species, highlighting the need to consider trade‐offs between focal and non‐focal taxa.

Effects of Microtopography on Neighborhood Diversity and Competition in Subtropical Forests

Forests are complex systems in which subtle variations in terrain can reveal much about plant community structure and interspecific interactions. Despite a wealth of studies focusing on broad-scale environmental gradients, the role of fine-scale topographic nuances often remains underappreciated, particularly in subtropical settings. In our study, we explore how minute differences in microtopography—encompassing local elevation, slope, aspect, terrain position index (TPI), terrain ruggedness index (TRI), and flow direction—affect neighborhood-scale interactions among plants. We established an 11.56-hectare dynamic plot in a subtropical forest at the northern margin of China’s subtropical zone, where both microtopographic factors and neighborhood indices (density, competition, diversity) were systematically measured using 5 m × 5 m quadrats. Parameter estimation and mixed-effects models were employed to examine how microtopography influences plant spatial patterns, growth, and competitive dynamics across various life stages. Our findings demonstrate that aspect and TPI act as key drivers, redistributing light and moisture to shape conspecific clustering, heterospecific competition, and tree growth. Remarkably, sun-facing slopes promoted sapling aggregation yet intensified competitive interactions, while shaded slopes maintained stable moisture conditions that benefited mature tree survival. Moreover, in contrast to broader-scale observations, fine-scale TRI was associated with reduced species richness, highlighting scale-dependent heterogeneity effects. The intensification of plant responses with life stage indicates shifting resource demands, where light is critical during early growth, and water becomes increasingly important for later survival. This study thus advances our multiscale understanding of forest dynamics and underscores the need to integrate fine-scale abiotic and biotic interactions into conservation strategies under global change conditions.

Aphid Species in Citrus Orchards in Crete: Key Vectors of Citrus Tristeza Virus and Automated Monitoring Innovations for Alate Aphids

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) is a vector-borne virus that poses a significant threat to citrus production worldwide, inducing a variety of symptoms. Therefore, a detailed knowledge of local aphids, identification of viruliferous species, and the development of new monitoring tools are necessary to improve CTV control strategies. Herein, a 2-year survey was conducted to assess the frequency of aphid species infesting several citrus pilot orchards. Plot findings based on morphological and molecular identification revealed Aphis spiraecola (ranged from 44–100%) as the most abundant aphid species, followed by A. gossypii (<50%). Toxoptera aurantii, Myzus persicae, and A. craccivora were present in low numbers, and A. citricidus was not detected. Due to the absence of CTV detection in aphids and citrus trees from the pilot orchards, a complementary survey was conducted in CTV-infected fields. Three aphid species were identified as CTV-positive by RT-PCR, suggesting that they may be viruliferous, with A. spiraecola as predominant, followed by A. gossypii and T. aurantii. Additionally, we developed a non-invasive procedure for identifying aphid species using wingbeat analysis. This method provides a faster alternative to traditional identification techniques by taxonomic keys based on morphological features or PCR, although its accuracy is lower (approximately 95% for the two species tested). Overall, this work provides a detailed study of aphid species composition in citrus orchards, identifies the predominant local putative CTV vector, and introduces a novel sensor for aphid monitoring, contributing to improved epidemic forecasting and sustainable disease management strategies.

Ecological and developmental history impacts the equitable distribution of services

The ecological and developmental history of the Chicago, Illinois, region has affected the current distribution of forests therein. These same factors, along with systemic and long‐lasting racial segregation, have shaped the distribution of the urban populations that benefit from the ecosystem services provided by urban forests. This study demonstrates that forest patch history is related to forest attributes like tree species composition, tree density, canopy height, and structural heterogeneity—all of which are important predictors of a forest's ability to provide ecosystem services. However, this effect of forest history was only seen in forest cores, as forest edges were similar regardless of patch history. We also found that forests in minoritized communities tended to be less able to support high levels of ecosystem services. This research indicates that, when improving green equity, it is important to consider the variable capacity of forests to provide ecosystem services.

Mississippi River-floodplain connectivity level mediates fish assemblage dynamics

The life histories of many Louisiana fishes are tied to the timing, magnitude, and duration of the Mississippi River flood pulse. Anthropogenic modifications designed to control and restrict flood waters have decoupled Louisiana’s floodplains from the seasonal flood pulse, influencing the aquatic food web. Culvert and rock weir repair within the Richard K. Yancey Wildlife Management Area aims to improve water quality and maintain appropriate water depth for native Louisiana fishes. In this study we conducted high-resolution imaging sonar (ARIS Explorer 3000) monitoring of the floodplain fish assemblage across seasons prior to hydrologic restoration. Imaging sonars may be used to obtain quantitative ecological and behavioral information without the selectivity biases of traditional techniques through the recording of continuous video-like datasets that are not constrained by environmental factors such as turbidity. Our first objective was to test the hypothesis that seasonal inundation levels and proximity to the Mississippi River affect the abundance and size class distribution of the floodplain-associated fish assemblage. Our second objective was to characterize species composition and ecological function of each acoustically-detected size class using historical fisheries datasets collected by the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries. To do so, we employed the multi-gear mean standardization technique for standardizing catch per unit effort of passive and active gear types used within the historical dataset in order to produce a non-exhaustive list of potentially recorded species by the imaging sonar. Our study demonstrated a size class dependent use of floodplain habitats mediated by inundation level, but not the distance from the Mississippi River. Our results illustrated a trend of increased detections of all size classes during high-water connected-spring and summer periods, as well as during disconnected-summer periods immediately following the seasonal flood pulse. Continued monitoring of the fish assemblage will provide additional data to better describe the complex dynamic patterns the floodplain fish assemblage may exhibit in response to the seasonal flood pulse and hydrologic restoration efforts.

The Impact of Plant Diversity on Carbon Storage Along the Gradient of Altitude in Alpine Grasslands of the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau

Plant diversity plays an important role in shaping the carbon cycling of grassland ecosystems. However, differences in the diversity effect on aboveground and belowground carbon storage remains unclear at specific spatiotemporal scales. A transplant experiment was carried out along the gradient of altitude (4600–5200 m) in alpine grasslands of the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau in the year 2017. Vegetation characteristics like species richness, vegetation cover and height were measured in the years 2020 and 2021. The plant diversity was described by species richness. Then, I calculated the vegetation biomass to quantify the aboveground carbon storage. The belowground carbon storage was represented by soil organic carbon. The results showed that the effect of species richness on belowground carbon storage was significantly positive (p < 0.05) at most altitudes for both years. However, the diversity effect on aboveground carbon storage was weak and inconsistent. The relationship between species richness and belowground carbon storage remained relatively stable over a period of two years. In contrast, the relationship altered greatly in terms of aboveground carbon storage in terms of inter-annual changes. Precipitation of growing seasons significantly impacted the species richness rather than aboveground carbon storage. Soil temperature was significantly associated with belowground carbon storage. These findings provide a new insight which will help us to assess the relationship between plant diversity and ecosystem functioning. They also allow us to understand how vegetation responds to climate change in high-altitudes areas.

Temporal Shifts in Biological Community Structure in Response to Wetland Restoration: Implications for Wetland Biodiversity Conservation and Management

Wetlands are vital ecosystems that provide diverse ecosystem services. However, their degradation poses an environmental threat globally, impacting human society. Recognizing their economic importance amidst escalating degradation emphasizes the urgent need for wetland conservation. Wetland restoration emerges as a crucial strategy to recover lost acreage and ecosystem functions. Despite substantial investments in restoration, the success of these efforts remains uncertain. We addressed this gap by investigating temporal changes in biological communities in restored wetlands to assess restoration effectiveness on biodiversity conservation. Utilizing aquatic funnel traps and plot surveys, we monitored changes in community structure, species richness, and abundance of amphibians and reptiles. The results revealed nuanced responses in herpetofaunal communities to restoration age and habitat characteristics, including contrasting responses between taxa with the reptile diversity increasing while the amphibian diversity decreased with restoration age. Adult herpetofaunal richness and abundance were higher at the five-year post-restoration sites compared to one-year post-restoration, while larval amphibian richness and abundance were greater at the latter. Species–habitat associations were significantly pronounced among the adult herpetofauna, highlighting the complex interplay between environmental factors and biological communities. Restoration age and habitat types also exhibited significant influences on adult herpetofaunal community structure, whereas larval amphibian communities showed limited temporal turnover. Our findings challenge widely held notions, suggesting that prolonged post-restoration trajectories may not always lead to greater amphibian abundance and diversity. The temporal shifts in the reptile community structure we documented are indicative of habitat template development and ecological succession upon wetland restoration. We underscore the importance of considering both temporal and spatial heterogeneity in restoration planning to promote biodiversity and ecosystem function. Our contributions will help decode biological responses to wetland restoration efforts and guide future restoration efforts. We underscore the importance of long-term monitoring and adaptive management strategies to ensure restoration success in conserving biodiversity and ecosystem services.

Polyplacophoran Assemblages in Shallow Waters of the West Antarctic Peninsula: Patterns of Diversity, Composition and Abundance

For the first time, field surveys for exploring the diversity and composition of shallow-water polyplacophorans in West Antarctica have been conducted. During the austral summer sampling campaigns of 2022, 2023 and 2024, a total of 1717 specimens of four species were collected from 21 localities. The composition, abundance, and diversity estimate of the assemblages showed that richness decreased southward due to changes in species composition. The ordination analysis showed a high similarity among localities. Thus, of the seven shallow-water chiton species previously recorded in Antarctica, only four were recorded here. Of them, Tonicina zschaui, Leptochiton kerguelensis, and Hemiarthrum setulosum were the most common and abundant, while Callochiton bouveti was the rarest and least abundant species. The diversity of shallow-water polyplacophorans in this area of Antarctica is low compared to the higher number of species reported in other sub-Antarctic regions. It is suggested that the effect of ice cover on shallow-water habitats could affect the abundance and diversity of chitons. In turn, the high similarity of assemblages may be due to the transport of larvae and juveniles by ocean currents and rafting between the studied sites.

Herbivore browse utilisation and selection in the Kazuma Forest Reserve, Northern Botswana

Herbivore browsing can influence the structure, composition, and processes of an ecosystem, and its effects can cascade to other functional components, especially when coupled with other disturbances. Ungulate browsing is not random, as it can be influenced by various biophysical factors. This study assessed overall herbivore browse utilisation in the Kazuma Forest Reserve (KFR) in the Chobe District of Northern Botswana at two scales of aggregation: vegetation class and study area. Vegetation of the KFR can be divided into three broad classes: shrubland vegetation, grassland vegetation, and woodland vegetation from which 23 sampling plots were selected. In each sampling plot, browsed and unbrowsed terminal shoots of all woody species were counted, from which browse utilisation and selection were determined. In total, 46 woody species were recorded in the KFR. The Sorenson Similarity Index reveals a weak overlap in species composition across the three vegetation classes of the KFR. Overall proportionate browse utilisation by the herbivore community of the KFR was influenced by vegetation type, whereas selection was not. Utilisation of most woody species was low, and few species were preferentially browsed by the KFR herbivore community. Both woody species utilisation and selection were not consistent across the two scales of aggregation. Woodland vegetation, on nutrient-poor Kalahari Sands, was associated with the least and highest proportion of browsed and unbrowsed woody species, respectively. However, even low browsing pressure can effect notable changes in ecosystem structure, composition, and hence function. The results of this study did not find any effect of predation risk on browse utilisation or selection across the three vegetation classes of the KFR. In conclusion, this study has laid a benchmark for future monitoring of browsing pressure and changes in wood species community structure in the KFR. It recommends further research to assess the effect of environmental and biological factors on browse utilisation and selection in the KFR.

Sandy Paradise or Rocky Hell? Investigating Soil Influence on Thrinax radiata Palm Groves from a Caribbean Island

Palm groves are abundant in southeastern Mexico and have significant economic and socio-cultural relevance. Studies on the production and management of palm groves are abundant in the area. However, an ecological approach is scarce but necessary for conserving these overexploited species. Palm groves are abundant on the island of Cozumel and develop on contrasting substrates: rocky and sandy ones. Thus, we aimed to explore how soil types affected community structure and composition. We sampled a total of 2900 m2 (29 plots of 10 × 10 m) of palm grove, 13 growing in sandy soil and 16 in rocky soil. We registered the species present in each plot, plant density, cover, height, and DBH. A hierarchical cluster analysis re-grouped the sampled plots based on their floristic affinities, and thus, we had 17 plots for the sandy substrate and 12 from the rocky substrate, which were used for later analyses. The dominant species in both palm groves was Thrinax radiata, and species richness was the same in both soil types (33 species). Contrasting substrates resulted in different community composition and structure. The palm groves from the sandy substrate had more vines but fewer shrubs and higher plant density, height, and DBH. The above suggests that the low availability of soil in the rocky substrate does not allow the same state of vegetation development that occurs in the sandy substrate.

Analysis of Understory Plant Community Assembly Differences in Moso Bamboo Forests in the Subtropical Evergreen Broad-Leaved Forest Region of Eastern China

Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis (Carrière) J. Houz.) forests are a vital forest type in subtropical China. This study investigates the diversity, floristic composition, and phylogenetic structure of understory vegetation in these bamboo forests within evergreen broad-leaved forests of eastern subtropical China. Using grid-based sampling, we calculated species diversity and phylogenetic indices, and employed correlation analysis, redundancy analysis, and structural equation modeling to assess the effects of canopy closure, soil properties, and topography. The understory exhibited high species richness, with shrub layer demonstrating phytogeographic characteristics predominantly associated with tropical distribution types, while the herbaceous layer is characterized by temperate distribution types. Canopy closure and environmental factors significantly influenced shrub diversity, showing a clustered phylogenetic structure (NTI > 0, NRI > 0) and a negative correlation with species diversity. In contrast, the herb layer displayed a divergent phylogenetic structure (NTI < 0, NRI < 0), shaped by neutral stochastic processes, reflecting endemic taxa and interspecific interactions. These findings emphasize the need for targeted management practices to conserve understory biodiversity, focusing on enhancing floristic and phylogenetic diversity while protecting endemic species and their ecological interactions.

Bauhinia angelae (Leguminosae: Cercidoideae): An overlooked new species from drylands of Northeastern Brazil

The Brazilian Seasonally Dry Tropical Forests and Woodlands represents an important evolutionary unit, widely recognized as a species center of diversification and endemism. The northeastern Brazilian Caatinga is the largest and most diverse SDTFW nucleus, exhibiting a important center of diversification in which the family Leguminosae exhibits the large number in genera and species richness and endemism, in which the genus Bauhinia stands out in species richness. Bauhinia angelae, a new species of shurbs or treelets is described, illustrated, and aspects related to its distribution, conservation status and relationships with morphologically similar species are discussed. Bauhinia angelae is characterized by the presences of triangular stipules, leaflets 3–10 × 2–7 cm, flower buds 2.5–6.5 cm long with the apex capitate and twisted lobes, oblong petals with undulate margins and mature fruits longer than 10 cm long. This new species is distributed in the Brazilian Caatinga between the states of Bahia and Minas Gerais. Additionally, a key to specie included in Bauhinia sect. Pauletia ser. Aculeatae is presented.

An update of the taxonomic system of Dactylorhiza (Orchidaceae, Orchideae)

An updated taxonomic system of Dactylorhiza is proposed based on earlier classifications and new phylogenetic reconstructions. The main principles of presently adopted classification are discussed. In particular, allotetraploids derived from fuchsii/maculata and incarnata/euxina genomes are placed together in one section, autopolyploids are positioned in the section of their putative parents, and the D. incarnata s.l. in one section together with D. salina s.l. and D. euxina. The arguments for a one-rank system, as opposed to a two-rank classification earlier accepted by many, are advocated. The taxonomic system is brought into line with the presently adopted rules of botanical nomenclature, and all earlier validly (and some invalidly) published names are placed in appropriate places in classification. Seven sections are recognised, one of which, D. sect. Coeloglossum, could be set apart as a separate genus. One new combination, Dactylorhiza sect. Coeloglossum (Hartm.) Efimov, is proposed, and two names, Orchis sect. Klingeanthus and D. subsect. Subsesquipedales, are typified. It is acknowledged that the proposed system has some possible internal nomenclatural instability due to D. sect. Latifoliae, a name of uncertain taxonomic position, which is based on Orchis latifolia L., a confusing rejected name. Approximate species composition of each section is listed, and a key to sections is provided.

Potentilla sanczirii (Rosaceae), a new species from high Mountain range in Western Mongolia

The genus Potentilla L. is one of the genus with controversial taxonomic position in family Rosaceae, and show a rich species diversity, adapting in mountains hills, high-altitude mountains and arid communities in Palearctic region. Potentilla sanczirii is described and illustrated as new species from Western Mongolian high mountain range. We used conventional morphometric and molecular phylogeny methods to describe new species. With this new contribution, we added a species to the genus Potentilla. L, which makes it with 79 elements in Mongolia. It is morphologically similar to P. nivea, such as, basal leaves ternate, Lower leaflet surface covered with whitish or grayish tomentose. However, differs in multiple caudex covered with dark-brown remains of decayed stipules, and the upper surface of its leaves is adorned with long, silky hairs (light grey). This species' mature nuts (achenes) are light green, approximately 1.0 mm long, and have a smooth surface.A Bayesian Inference tree was reconstructed to further understand the phylogenetic relationships within the genus, and a time-calibrated phylogenetic tree of the subtribe Potentillinae, including 15 species of Pot entilla from Mongolia. The time-calibrated phylogenetic tree suggests that the newly discovered P. sanczirii originated approximately 6.50 million years ago during the late Miocene.