Phylogeny and diversification of the subfamily Acheilognathinae (Cypriniformes: Cyprinidae) from China based on a comprehensive molecular dataset.

Identifying lineages of cold-tolerant rotifers in a Korean brackish lagoon using eDNA metabarcoding, morphology, and life-history traits.

This narrative review aims to aggregate all reports of nosocomial transmission of rare yeast species, to provide an overview of global trends, causative species, clinical characteristics and preventive measures. A comprehensive literature search of multiple databases was conducted, to identify all reported nosocomial transmission events involving rare yeast species. The five most common yeasts, Candida albicans, Nakaseomyces glabratus, Candida parapsilosis, Candida tropicalis and Pichia kudriavzevii, in addition to Candida auris were excluded. A total of 76 reports were retrieved since 1984, caused by 28 different species. Wickerhamoyces anomalus was the most common agent, followed by Magnusiomyces, Trichosporon and species of the Candida haemulonii complex. Since the early 2000s, a clear increase was noted both in the number of outbreak reports and range of associated species, largely due to improved diagnostics. Most species were resistant to one or multiple antifungals and although environmental sampling was often performed, virtually all efforts yielded negative results. Once noted, strict hand hygiene practices and proper cleaning and disinfection of medical equipment has shown in curbing nosocomial spread. As hospital outbreak events are increasingly reported, accurate species identification and epidemiological surveillance should be in place for rapid detection. An enhanced focus on infection control measures was often sufficient to prevent new cases. Importantly, high-resolution genotyping is needed to confirm clonal transmission, which is often not conducted.

Kingdom Bacteria; Phylum Proteobacteria; Class Gammaproteobacteria; Family Pseudomonadaceae; Genus Pseudomonas; Species Pseudomonas syringae species complex, Genomospecies 1, Phylogroup 02b. Gram-negative, aerobic, motile, rod-shaped with polar flagella, oxidase negative, arginine dihydrolase negative, levan production positive, potato rot negative, tobacco hypersensitivity positive. T3SEs, toxins (syringomycin, syringopeptin, syringolin, mangotoxin, tabtoxin). Pseudomonas syringae causes disease symptoms on beet leaves characterised as circular or irregular, dark-edged, white to light brown necrotic spots that merge and spread over the entire leaf surface. Young leaves become completely necrotic within 7 days after the first symptom appears. Reported disease incidence mainly occurs on beets and cucurbits in temperate regions. Greenhouse trials showed an extremely wide host range for the strains isolated from diseased beets, causing disease on plants from nine different families and 16 different plant species. Preventive measures focus primarily on sanitary and cultural practices. Integrated control programmes benefit from the regular application of copper formulations. The susceptibility of sugar beet cultivars to leaf spot disease varies, but no cultivar is completely resistant to the pathogen. Biological control may involve beneficial bacteria that suppress pathogens via metabolites and resource competition or by inducing systemic resistance in beet plants. https://www.pseudosonseed.org/chenopods-diseases/; https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/44993; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/assembly/?term=pseudomonas%20syringae%20pv.%20aptata; https://www.uniprot.org/proteomes?query=pseudomonas%20syringae%20pv.%20aptata; https://pnwhandbooks.org/plantdisease/host-disease/beet-red-beta-vulgaris-bacterial-leaf-spot.

The quorum-sensing (QS) system plays a crucial role in regulating the virulence of the Ralstonia solanacearum species complex (RSSC). It is controlled by the phcBSR operon and phcA genes. PhcQ may contribute to the activation of PhcA and regulates the expression of QS-dependent genes. Here, we genetically demonstrate that PhcQ functions as a key component of the QS regulatory pathway by maintaining the protein stability of PhcA in R. pseudosolanacearum OE1-1. Deletion of phcQ significantly increased the expression of genes encoding the type III secretion system but decreased the expression of genes for the synthesis of exopolysaccharide, consistent with that of PhcA. The phcQ mutants exhibited enhanced growth at early stages and retained weak virulence on tobacco plants, although they are nonvirulent on tomato plants. Using an overexpression system, we positioned PhcQ downstream of PhcB and upstream of PhcA in the QS regulatory cascade. PhcQ did not affect phcA transcription, while proteomic analysis and western blot revealed that PhcQ maintains PhcA protein stability, with PhcA protein levels reduced to approximately 41% in phcQ mutants. Further structural analysis revealed a disordered tail within the C-terminus of PhcA that is dispensable for PhcA function yet critical for protein stability. Using bimolecular fluorescence complementation and GST pull-down assay, we demonstrated that PhcQ binds directly to PhcA both invitro and in planta, and deletion of this C-terminus tail impaired their binding affinity. These findings reveal a novel regulatory mechanism where PhcQ binds to PhcA and maintains its protein stability to ensure proper QS-dependent gene regulation in RSSC.

Mosquitoes serve as competent vectors of various pathogens. Vector-pathogen interactions, as well as ecology and spatiotemporal distributions, are often species-specific, highlighting the need to monitor the presence and abundance of different mosquito species. While morphological examination for species identification remains widely used in monitoring programs, molecular methods, such as DNA barcoding, offer a greater taxonomic resolution. Accurate species assignment however, depends on updated and reliable reference databases. Therefore, the aim of this study was to establish a curated collection of DNA barcodes of Austrian mosquitoes, including the Anopheles maculipennis complex. In total, 304 cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCOI) gene barcodes were obtained from 40 different Austrian mosquito species and subspecies across seven genera. Moreover, three An.maculipennis species complex members (An.daciae, An.maculipenniss.s., An.messeae) were detected in Austria. All sequences were uploaded to NCBI GenBank and BOLD Systems to contribute to stable and correct public databases. While these results help improve the identification and differentiation of mosquito species, this curated database can also serve as the basis for establishing future applications, such as NGS-based DNA barcoding.

Blister-forming eriophyoid mites of the genus Eriophyes are important pests of rosaceous plants and have traditionally been regarded as polyphagous species with broad host ranges. However, increasing evidence suggests that many eriophyoids represent complexes of cryptic species or host-associated lineages. In this study, we applied an integrative taxonomic approach to investigate the taxonomic status of Eriophyes populations associated with Malus domestica, Pyrus spp., and Sorbus aucuparia. We analyzed mitochondrial COI and nuclear D2 region of 28S rDNA sequences from multiple populations, together with multivariate morphometric analyses based on 28 quantitative morphological characters. Phylogenetic reconstruction and species delimitation analyses (bPTP) revealed strong host-associated genetic structuring and identified up to seven deeply divergent evolutionary lineages. Mitochondrial COI data resolved multiple host-specific clades with high inter-lineage divergence, while the more conserved nuclear D2 marker supported major host-associated groupings but recovered fewer lineages, indicating mito-nuclear discordance consistent with recent or ongoing divergence. Morphometric analyses detected statistically significant differentiation among host-associated populations; however, extensive overlap in diagnostic characters was observed, particularly between pear- and rowan-associated mites, indicating cryptic speciation. In contrast, mites associated with apple exhibited clearer morphological differentiation consistent with molecular clustering. Our results demonstrate that leaf blister mites associated with rosaceous hosts represent a complex of distinct, host-specialized species. These findings highlight the limitations of morphology-based taxonomy in Eriophyoidea and underscore the need for integrative approaches to accurate species delimitation, with important implications for vector identification and improved pest management.

The α-Carbonic Anhydrase (αCA) gene family encodes an abundant and ancient metalloenzyme present in all animals. Found in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes, members of this gene family play vital roles in ionic regulation, acid-base regulation, and respiration. However, little is known regarding the evolutionary history and patterns of molecular evolution of this gene family in the phylum Arthropoda, especially in relation to chordates. Through phylogenetic reconstruction and subcellular localization prediction, we discovered that arthropod αCA genes could be classified into three clades based on phylogenetic topology, as has been found in chordate αCA. Among the three distinct arthropod αCA clades, Clade III, enriched in predicted extracellular and cell membrane-bound subcellular localization, exhibited the highest rates of evolution and greatest number of homologs. Intriguingly, we found distinct patterns of gene family expansions and contractions between arthropods and chordates through gene tree-species tree reconciliation. Lastly, we found that αCA12, a member of Clade III αCA, showed signatures of positive selection (based on dN/dS) in two sibling species within the copepod Eurytemora affinis species complex (E. carolleeae and E. gulfia), compared to the general arthropod αCA background. In these populations, this particular paralog had previously shown contemporary signatures of selection during invasions into novel salinities. Overall, our results indicate that the αCA gene family shows signatures of selection both on macroevolutionary time scales across phyla, as well as between closely related sibling species within Arthropoda.

Klebsiella pneumoniae infections in young infants are an escalating threat in low- and middle-income countries, yet robust longitudinal data integrating hospital burden, clinical outcomes, antimicrobial resistance, and genomics remains scarce. We performed an 18-year (2004-2021) prospective, multicenter genomic epidemiology study across four hospitals in Bangladesh. Among 122,353 enrolled children from whom blood and/or cerebrospinal fluid cultures were performed, 1600 (1.3%) yielded culture-confirmed Klebsiella pneumoniae species complex (KpSC) isolates. Positivity increased from 16 per 1000 cases tested in 2004 to 37 per 1000 in 2021. Hospital case-fatality rate (CFR) rose from 21.4% to 51.4% during the study, paralleling the emergence and expansion of carbapenem resistance, first detected in 2008 and reaching 81% of isolates by 2021. Neonates accounted for 80.5% of infections and experienced a CFR of 40.8%. Whole-genome sequencing of 599 representative isolates revealed four KpSC species, 145 sequence types, and 92 capsular alleles. Global high-risk clones ST11, ST16, and ST147 harbouring NDM-type carbapenemases dominated recent cases. These findings document the increasing resistance and mortality associated with KpSC infections amongst neonates in Bangladesh, underscoring the urgent need for strengthened infection prevention and control, equitable access to effective combination therapies, and vaccine-based preventative strategies.

Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus Thunb.) and melon (Cucumis melo L.) are globally important horticultural crops, cultivated widely for their economic and dietary value. However, their productivity is increasingly threatened by Fusarium wilt, which causes substantial yield losses. The genus Fusarium comprises over 400 phylogenetically distinct species, classified into multiple species complexes (SCs). Many of these species are soilborne and resilient in agroecosystems, complicating accurate identification and disease management. While Fusarium oxysporum formae speciales-f. sp. niveum (FON) and f. sp. melonis (FOM)-have long been considered the main causal agents of Fusarium wilt in watermelon and melon, an increasing number of regional studies suggest that diverse Fusarium spp. may also be involved. In this study, we examined the diversity and pathogenicity of Fusarium spp. causing wilt in watermelon and melon across key cultivation regions in Korea. Thirty-three Fusarium isolates were initially identified using internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequencing and further characterized through multilocus phylogenetic analysis of the translation elongation factor 1-alpha (EF-1α) and the RNA polymerase second largest subunit (RPB2) genes. The isolates were classified into five distinct SCs: F. oxysporum (FOSC), F. nisikadoi (FNSC), F. fujikuroi (FFSC), F. incarnatum-equiseti (FIESC), and F. solani (FSSC). Morphological and microscopic features were examined to support SC-level classification. Pathogenicity assays confirmed that representative isolates from each SC induced wilt symptoms in both watermelon and melon. These results broaden the understanding of Fusarium diversity in cucurbits and underscore the needs for phylogenetically informed diagnostics and disease management strategies.

Pepper anthracnose, a devastating and economically important disease in Korea, is caused by diverse Colletotrichum species that differ significantly in their pathogenicity and environmental adaptation. In a three-year study from 2022 to 2024, pathogens were isolated and species characteristics were investigated. Using multilocus phylogenetic analysis and species-specific PCR, seven species were identified: C. scovillei, C. nymphaeae, and C. fioriniae in the C. acutatum species complex; C. fructicola, C. aenigma, and C. gloeosporioides in the C. gloeosporioides species complex; and C. truncatum. C. scovillei remained dominant, but species diversity increased in 2024, with non-dominant species such as C. fructicola and C. truncatum increasing in specific regions. Temperature-dependent assays revealed distinct ecological niches, showing that while C. scovillei prefers a moderate 25°C, high temperature-adapted species like C. fructicola and C. truncatum exhibit enhanced growth and pathogenicity at 30°C. Fungicide sensitivity tests showed that tebuconazole and fluazinam remained effective against all species of Colletotrichum, whereas pyraclostrobin (QoI) resistance was widespread. The mycelial growth inhibition of C. scovillei by pyraclostrobin ranged from 29.5% to 43.3% during 2022-2024, indicating reduced sensitivity. All C. truncatum isolates were resistant, consistently associated with the G143A mutation in the cytb gene. These findings indicate that climate warming and fungicide selection pressure are driving shifts toward more resilient populations, highlighting the need for climate-adaptive disease management through monitoring and fungicide rotation.

The responses of anurans to paleogeology, climate variability and anthropogenic factors play a crucial role in understanding their diversity and population dynamics. Despite substantial phylogeographic studies existing for northeast Asia, a region-wide synthesis linking divergence timing with major evolutionary drivers is lacking. To address this gap, we synthesised published divergence-time estimates for northeast Asian anurans from 1998 to present, and linked basal, stem and crown ages to their associated drivers and regional contexts. We integrated the data with time-calibrated genomic species trees, diversification analyses, and three key trait data (body size, elevation and latitude range) to assess temporal patterns of lineage divergence and compare diversification dynamics among the major anuran families in northeast Asia. Our synthesis identifies four recurrent evolutionary drivers: (1) paleogeology and landscape barriers, (2) climate fluctuations and latitudinal gradients, (3) glaciations and past sea-level change, and (4) anthropogenic influences. Across families, we highlight unresolved species boundaries, detect the genetic imprint of human-mediated disturbance, synthesise phenotypic, ecological, and macroevolutionary patterns using openly available datasets, and identify cases where multiple drivers interact within species complexes. Bayesian Analysis of Macroevolutionary Mixtures (BAMM) trait reconstructions showed that across all three traits, Ranidae had the highest trait values through time, indicating broader ecological breadth and greater macroevolutionary expansion than Bufonidae and Microhylidae. Our synthesis integrates divergence timing, trait evolution, and environmental drivers, providing a general framework for understanding biodiversity responses to long-term environmental change.

Here we place a serious emerging disease of California processing tomato associated with the Fusarium solani species complex (FSSC) in a taxonomic/clonal framework of global and historical FSSC-associated tomato disease. Standard FSSC sequence markers (tef1α, rDNA, and rpb2) resolved at least four closely related modern species as tomato pathogens globally: F. noneumartii, F. martii, F. falciforme, and F. solani-melongenae. Based on sequence analysis, somatic compatibility grouping, and inoculation studies, our work connects a single F. noneumartii clone in California (SCG FN-1) to modern California isolates (2017 to 2020) associated with serious symptoms (stem rot and vine decline) and impacts (fruit damage and loss). Historical (1996 to 2001) California tomato foot rot isolates from California are also FN-1 and show severe virulence and yield impacts similar to those of modern FN-1 isolates, indicating that this virulent pathogen was present at least 20 years prior to the modern severe outbreak. Discovery of a single moderately virulent California F. martii clone (SCG FM-1) marks the first connection between F. martii and plant disease. Clonally diverse F. falciforme isolates from California tomato, which did not cause severe symptoms, represent clonally diverse haplotypes/SCGs different from F. falciforme pathogens from Mexico and a putative Australia foot rot pathogen from 1982. Comparisons of tef1α sequences demonstrate that F. noneumartii and F. martii have multicontinental distributions associated with many plant hosts and show similarity between FN-1 and 2010 foot rot isolates from Japan. This clarification of global diversity, distribution, and biology of FSSC tomato pathogens provides a new framework for disease management and diagnosis.

The floodplains of the Paraná and Paraguay rivers form the Chaco wetland, one of the most species-rich plant ecosystems in Argentina. Because wild grasses can serve as reservoirs of fungal species that cause disease and mycotoxin contamination of cereal crops, we examined asymptomatic, wild grasses from the Chaco wetlands for the presence of the genus Fusarium, which includes multiple species that cause agriculturally important diseases and/or mycotoxin contamination of crops. We focused our efforts on the identification and characterization of the multispecies lineage known as the Fusarium fujikuroi species complex (FFSC). Using morphological traits and partial DNA sequences of the TEF1 gene, we determined that 58 isolates recovered from the grasses were members of FFSC. Fifty of the isolates were identified as one of six FFSC species, including the economically important plant pathogenic species F. proliferatum, F. subglutinans, and F. verticillioides. To our knowledge, two of the species, F. anthophilum and F. pseudocircinatum, have not been reported previously in Argentina. Our analyses also indicated that eight of the FFSC isolates were a novel species, herein described as Fusarium varsavskyanum. A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay and genome sequence data indicate that each isolate of F. varsavskyanum isolate had only one mating type idiomorph (MAT1-1 or MAT1-2), which suggests that the fungus is heterothallic. Genome sequence analysis indicated that F. varsavskyanum has the genetic potential to produce, (i) the emerging mycotoxins fusaric acid and beauvericin (or enniatins); (ii) the pigments bikaverin, carotenoids, and fusarubin; and (iii) the plant hormones auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins. Thus, asymptomatic grasses from the Chaco wetland can harbor Fusarium species that in some agroecosystems can cause economically important diseases and/or mycotoxin contamination of crops. It remains to be determined whether the genotypes of Fusarium species that occur on the wetland grasses, including F. varsavskyanum genotypes, can negatively impact agriculture.

Alexandrium minutum Halim, the generitype species of the toxigenic Alexandrium, was described from a 1958 bloom in the Eastern Harbour, Alexandria (Egypt), but has never been re-examined with modern methods from the type locality. Here, we establish a monoclonal strain (TIO1796) by cyst germination from Alexandria's port sediment and a second strain (TIO1816) from plankton samples from the Gulf of Suez. Cell morphology of both cultured strains and plankton samples was examined using scanning electron and light microscopy. The plate formula of A. minutum was identified as Po, *4', 6'', 6C, 9S, 5''', 2p, 1''''. Our results confirmed the consistent presence of a ventral pore and a variable connection between Po and 1'. Molecular phylogenetic analyses based on LSU rRNA gene and ITS rRNA region sequences revealed four ribotypes (A-D) of A. minutum. The LSU rRNA gene and ITS rRNA region sequences of both strains were identical and belong to the widespread ribotype A ("Global/Mediterranean clade"). The other ribotypes are restricted to the Asia-Pacific region. Strain TIO1796 (type locality) was non-toxic regarding paralytic shellfish toxin (PST < 0.024 pg · cell-1), whereas TIO1816 produced GTX1/4-dominated toxins (0.48 pg PST · cell-1). These results (i) anchor the name A. minutum to ribotype A via neotypification of strain TIO1796, (ii) document a PST-producing A. minutum in the Red Sea, and (iii) provide evidence supporting that A. minutum constitutes a cryptic species complex analogous to the A. tamarense species complex. The historical decline of A. minutum blooms in Alexandria since the 1990s correlates with near-absent cyst banks in recent sediments.

The genus Glauconycteris (Vespertilionidae) comprises small, forest-dependent bats distributed across sub-Saharan Africa. Despite its distinctive morphology, the genus remains poorly represented in collections and its taxonomy unresolved. During recent field surveys in southeastern Cameroon, ten Glauconycteris specimens were collected from the Northwestern Congolian Lowland Forest, eight from Lobéké National Park (LNP) and two from the Dja Biosphere Reserve (DBR). Morphometric and molecular analyses assigned these specimens to eight species, including representatives of three species groups (poensis, beatrix, and humeralis). One species, G.superba, is recorded for the first time from Cameroon and two are described herein as new to science, Glauconycterisbakasp. nov. and Glauconycterislobekesp. nov. These findings increase the total number of recognised Glauconycteris species to 15 and confirm that G.beatrix, as previously understood, represents a species complex, revealing further cryptic diversity within the genus. By combining taxonomic, ecological, and distributional data, our results indicate that most members of the genus tolerate moderate habitat degradation and that all 11 species recorded from Cameroon occur within or adjacent to at least one protected area. This study provides the first integrated taxonomic assessment of Glauconycteris in Cameroon, refines species distributions, and contributes additional ecological data for three species (G.gleni, G.egeria, and G.curryae) currently listed as Data Deficient on the IUCN Red List. Our findings underscore the importance of continued sampling in the Guineo-Congolian region to better inform the conservation of Africa’s forest-dependent bats.

Climatic suitability and phylogeography reveal cryptic diversity and public health risk in the Amblyomma testudinarium complex and other Asian Amblyomma.

Klebsiella quasipneumoniae is a Gram-negative, non-motile, capsulated, facultative anaerobic rod within the K. pneumoniae species complex (KpSC) and is increasingly recognized as an opportunistic pathogen associated with bloodstream infections, urinary tract infections (UTIs), and other clinically significant conditions. Because it shares many phenotypic characteristics with K. pneumoniae, accurate diagnosis remains challenging in routine clinical settings, particularly in low-resource laboratories lacking access to molecular identification tools. In this study, we characterized the antimicrobial resistance (AMR) profile of a K. quasipneumoniae subsp. quasipneumoniae isolate obtained from a UTI case in Peshawar, Pakistan. The isolate exhibited a multidrug resistant (MDR) phenotype, with resistance to β-lactams, carbapenems, fluoroquinolones, and colistin (MIC 4 µg/mL), while remaining susceptible to aminoglycosides (amikacin and gentamicin) and tigecycline (MIC 2 µg/mL). Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) identified chromosomally encoded AMR determinants, including blaOKP-A-8, oqxAB, and fosA6, with no identifiable plasmid replicons detected. Multiple nonsynonymous mutations were observed in mgrB, pmrA/B, phoP/Q, lpxM, ompK35/36, and gyrA/parC, which have been previously associated with resistance phenotypes; however, their functional contribution in this isolate was inferred from genomic data and not experimentally validated. Virulence-associated loci such as fim, ecp, entB, and fepC were present, consistent with a classical (non-hypervirulent) phenotype. Phylogenomic analysis positioned the isolate (Kq1223) on a distinct branch relative to publicly available genomes, but given that this study is based on a single isolate, no definitive conclusions regarding regional lineage or evolutionary patterns can be established. The allelic profile identified by multilocus sequence typing (MLST) has not been previously reported and may represent an unassigned sequence type pending formal database validation. The presence of chromosomally mediated MDR, including colistin resistance, highlights potential therapeutic challenges and underscores the importance of accurate species identification and expanded genomic surveillance of Klebsiella species in clinical microbiology, particularly in resource limited settings.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42770-026-01982-0.

The Cryptococcus neoformans species complex (CNSC), responsible for cryptococcosis, is controlled by Th1-type immunity, in which IFN-γ-activated macrophages form granulomas that contain infection. Nevertheless, CNSC can evade host immunity and, after the primary infection phase, can shift to a latent infection similar to tuberculosis. Reactivation is thought to occur when immune control fails, but the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. FTY720, a functional antagonist of sphingosine-1-phosphate receptors, is primarily used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis. However, there have been reports linking its use to instances of cryptococcosis in patients undergoing treatment. To explore this, we established a novel mouse model using CnT-II mice, which express CD4+ T cell receptors specific for chitin deacetylase 2 (Cda2), a major T cell antigen of CNSC. Following infection with encapsulated CNSC, mice developed persistent pulmonary fungal burdens (10²-10³ CFU) accompanied by granulomatous responses, modeling latent infection. Upon FTY720 administration, mice exhibited increased pulmonary fungal burdens, disrupted granuloma integrity, and reduced IFN-γ and IL-12 production. FTY720 also markedly decreased CD4+ effector memory (Tem) and effector T cells (Teff) in the lungs, with a particularly profound loss of IFN-γ-producing Tem cells. These findings indicate that our model successfully recapitulates latent cryptococcal infection and reactivation, and demonstrate that FTY720 promotes relapse by depleting protective IFN-γ-producing CD4+ Tem cells and impairing Th1-mediated immunity. Given the rising use of FTY720, our study highlights its potential risk in patients with subclinical cryptococcosis and underscores the need for preventive strategies to avert disease progression.

In this study, four Fusarium strains isolated from Poaceae plants infected by Claviceps spp. and one strain isolated from the stem of Cirsium arvense collected from two regions of Russia that are separated by a long distance were analyzed in detail. These fungi were accurately identified through a phylogenetic analysis of the fragments of translation elongation factor 1-α and RNA polymerase second largest subunit loci. Four of them belong to F. heterosporum species, and one strain, MFG 13060, together with the historical reference strain BBA 62226, forms a distinct lineage within the F. heterosporum species complex (FHSC). The morphological features of the anamorph structures of the fungi within the FHSC are presented. All the analyzed F. heterosporum strains are heterothallic and require a partner to mate. The fertile perithecia of F. heterosporum were obtained in a crossing experiment, and the teleomorph structures were characterized in detail. The screening of 19 mycotoxins typically produced by Fusarium fungi using high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry revealed the ability of the strains to produce only moniliformin on an autoclaved rice substrate. A reassessment of the species diversity, distribution, and significance of fungi belonging to the FHSC is necessary to elucidate the unclear relationships between F. heterosporum, Claviceps fungi, and cereal plants.