Social polarization is an increasingly important phenomenon in the context of sustainable land-use changes. A spatial component is often assumed: an urban-rural polarization with “urban" and "rural" being stereotyped as dichotomous categories. Some arguments from the literature contradict this dichotomy: intermediate urban centers are located in rural areas, inhabitants may have different backgrounds, and interconnectedness and commonalities defy a strict urban-rural divide. This study is using the understanding of the agriculturally shaped environment as an indicator for urban-rural conflicts and to detect social polarization. By examining regional patterns in understanding clusters, the study reflects on rural heterogeneity beyond the traditional urban–rural divide. It contributes to capturing the complexity of rural areas and challenges simplistic urban–rural distinctions. The study is based on a large-scale population survey conducted in Western Pomerania, a predominantly rural region with smaller urban centers in northeastern Germany characterized by several land use conflicts. Based on multinomial logistic regression, significant associations between regional characteristics and understanding clusters are found, while controlling for socio-demographic variables. Some results support, while others contradict the hypothesis that understanding of the agricultural environment is not dichotomously distributed along an urban-rural gradient, but is much more heterogeneous. Furthermore, there is a need for action, especially in "urban" areas, to counteract alienation from the agriculturally shaped environment and especially from agriculture, as well as to increase knowledge about sustainability. The authors suggest a more nuanced approach to examining regional differences to accurately address the need for action and counteract social polarization. • Assumed urban-rural polarization can impede sustainable development. • Understanding is essential for constructive (land use) conflict resolution. • Significant associations between regional characteristics and understanding clusters. • Depending on variables, much more heterogeneity than just urban-rural dichotomy. • Special need for action in "urban" areas regarding environmental understanding.

This paper draws on the authors’ experience of working with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) school pupils on a research project about domestic abuse and healthy relationships. The focus is on work with pupils in four SEND schools. Disabled women in the UK are more than twice as likely to experience domestic abuse compared to women who are not disabled. The abuse they face usually lasts for a longer period and with greater severity. Research shows that school staff are often reluctant to talk with disabled young people about relationship education and relationship abuse. This means pupils’ views and opinions often go unheard and undervalued. Pupils with SEND needs can be particularly vulnerable to abusive relationships, so a focus on friendships and healthy relationships and how this impacts on emotional wellbeing is important in teaching relationship and sex education (RSE). Teaching RSE became compulsory in UK schools in 2020. The paper considers how creative methodologies can be used in the classroom to listen to and respect the voices of pupils and to ensure that their participation is integral to research. It explores how creative research methods can be adapted to diverse participants, including those with SEND requirements, in particular, pupils with visually and sensory impairments, to enable the creation of a co-designed resource on relationship education. There is increasing recognition of the need for a whole school approach to prevent gender-based violence, and the need to equip school staff to feel more confident teaching relationship education to SEND pupils. However, there is little research on how effective current resources are for pupils with disabilities. This paper demonstrates the importance of co-designed resources tailored specifically for use by pupils with disabilities to learn about domestic abuse and healthy relationships.

This study aims to analyze the empowerment of family education grounded in Islamic values to enhance the resilience of parents of children with special needs at the “Purworejo Kita Semua” Foundation (Yayasan Purworejo Kita Semua [YPKS]) in Purworejo Regency. The study employed a qualitative approach with a descriptive research design. The research subjects included the foundation’s teachers and administrators as well as parents of children with special needs. Data were collected through interviews, observation, and documentation, and were analyzed using the Miles and Huberman model, which consists of data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing. The study focuses on three main aspects: the conditions of parents of children with special needs, the forms of family education empowerment implemented by the foundation, and the impact of these interventions on parental resilience. The findings show that the parents’ initial conditions were marked by emotional stress, social stigma, and difficulties in parenting. The empowerment programs implemented by the foundation included an Islamic parenting program, JURASIK (Jum’at Berbagi itu Asyik / Friday Sharing is Fun) activities, Islamic spiritual activities, and lifelong healthy exercise programs integrating educational, social, and spiritual aspects. The impact of these programs is reflected in increased parental acceptance of their children’s conditions, stronger emotional resilience, greater optimism regarding their children’s future, and improved spiritual well-being. This study concludes that family education empowerment grounded in Islamic values can strengthen parental resilience through a comprehensive and sustainable approach, and it contributes practical insight into the development of supportive interventions for families of children with special needs.

Hemoglobin (Hb) is a key indicator of oxygen transport and overall child health, particularly during periods of rapid growth and cognitive development. Anemia remains a significant global public health problem, often driven by nutritional deficiencies, especially iron. Vitamin C enhances iron absorption, while protein supports hemoglobin synthesis, indicating a synergistic role of these nutrients. Children with special needs are at higher risk of nutritional inadequacies due to feeding challenges and restricted diets. However, evidence on how dietary intake influences hemoglobin levels in this population is still limited. Aims:This study aimed to analyze the role of dietary protein, vitamin C, and iron intake as predictors of hemoglobin levels in children with special needs. Methods:A cross-sectional observational study was conducted among 34 students at SLB Kutoarjo between January and May 2024. Dietary intake data were collected using a 3-day food record completed by caregivers and analyzed with NutriSurvey software. Hemoglobin data were obtained from school health records. Statistical analysis included correlation and multiple regression tests to assess the relationship between nutrient intake and hemoglobin levels. Results:The findings revealed that the average intake of protein, iron, vitamin C, and total energy was below recommended levels. Despite this, the mean hemoglobin level (13.38 ± 1.33 g/dL) was within the normal range. Regression analysis showed that the combined intake of protein, iron, vitamin C, and folate explained 25% of the variation in hemoglobin levels (R² = 0.25), but the adjusted R² was low (0.036), indicating weak explanatory power. No individual nutrient showed a statistically significant association with hemoglobin levels (p > 0.05). Conclusions:Dietary protein, vitamin C, and iron intake were not significant predictors of hemoglobin levels in children with special needs. These findings highlight that hemoglobin status is influenced by complex interactions beyond dietary intake alone. Further research with larger samples and additional biomarkers is needed to better understand anemia risk in this population.

Sense of Relatedness (Resiliency), Perceived Relationships with Parents and Teachers and Depression in students with and without Special Educational Needs (SEN)

The population of children and youth with special health care needs (CYSHCN) has grown significantly. This includes children with medical complexity (CMC), those with chronic conditions, functional limitations, or reliance on medical technology. Due to advances in medical care, these children are now able to live at home, making encounters with emergency medical services (EMS) more likely. EMS clinicians receive limited pediatric training and have infrequent encounters with this population, resulting in variable comfort and preparedness. Utilization of emergency care among CMC is further influenced by social determinants of health, with disadvantaged communities experiencing higher emergency department use and increased child mortality. To bridge these gaps, the Special Needs Tracking and Awareness Response System (STARS) was developed to enhance EMS readiness, promote health equity, and improve prehospital care for CMC. Launched in 2014 as an EMS-driven initiative, STARS has evolved into a hospital-based, physician-led program with individualized emergency care plans stored in a secure electronic system. A major focus of STARS is to create and provide emergency care education to EMS and community EDs in their catchment area regarding STARS. As of 2025, STARS has enrolled 2424 patients. The program has reduced unnecessary transports, strengthened disaster response, and offered an opportunity to address health inequities in CMC. STARS provides a scalable and collaborative model that prioritizes medically complex, high-risk pediatric populations through targeted EMS training, interdisciplinary care coordination, and real-time access to patient-specific plans. This approach offers a unique opportunity to advance prehospital care and improve health outcomes for CMC.

ABSTRACT Implementing an inclusive school means that teachers should use exam accommodations to foster the participation of students with Special Educational Needs (SEN). However, due to the emphasis on merit in most school systems, this practice can create a dilemma between equality and equity that can notably influence teachers’ perceived fairness of such accommodations. Three studies conducted in the French context with teachers, students and members of the public (i.e. convenience samples, N = 1,525) examined this dilemma. Results indicate a differentiated perception of accommodations in terms of fairness, but also comparability. Moreover, the more teachers believed assessment should support student learning, the more they perceived exam accommodations as facilitating comparisons of students’ performance, and the fairer they perceived accommodations. These findings highlight a recurrent equality – equity tension in assessment and suggest that accommodations intended to promote equity may be viewed as less fair when they are perceived to undermine comparability.

Abstract Speakers use resources to facilitate information processing. Structural markers are information regulators that signal the start and end of information blocks, place them in an order within a sequence, and make it possible to anticipate processing. Their role is especially important in expository textual discourse and in specialized texts where there is a special need to prioritize information to non-specialist audiences. We propose an eye-tracking study of the Spanish structural markers en primer lugar (Eng. ‘firstly’) , en segundo lugar (Eng. ‘secondly’) and por último (Eng. ‘finally’) to verify if their semantic and pragmatic features influence how native speakers process the structures on which they operate. Our starting hypothesis was that their presence may lead to a reduction of the cognitive effort during reading compared to an equivalent text where they are absent. Data analysis from a reading eye-tracking experiment with Spanish native speakers confirmed that the presence of structural markers in enumerative fragments has an accelerating effect on processing during the first reading. However, during the rereading phase this facilitative effect was not found. From this it follows that marking the information structure in an enumeration in specialized texts hardly represents a quantitative advantage for the native reader.

As modern society grows increasingly complex, access to essential services such as healthcare, legal aid, tailored education, and psychological support remains heavily gated by socio-economic, neurological, and systemic barriers. This paper explores the transformative potential of Large Language Models (LLMs) and Generative Artificial Intelligence not merely as industrial productivity enhancers, but as vital “social scaffolds” capable of fostering a more inclusive society. Crucially, we propose a paradigm shift in the concept of Ethical Computing—moving from a passive defensive framework of non-maleficence (“do no harm”) to an active mandate of beneficence, where AI systems are explicitly developed to serve marginalized and un(der)served populations. Through this expanded ethical lens, we systematically analyze the democratizing impact of AI across four primary axes of inclusivity: socio-economic (providing zero-cost medical triage and legal translation for undocumented populations), neurospicy (acting as a non-judgmental communicative bridge for individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder), pedagogical (delivering hyper-personalized executive function support for Special Educational Needs), and psychological (serving as an accessible, first-level triage system for mental health crises). By framing LLMs as a modern social safety net, we outline a clear trajectory for future research, advocating for an “ethical-by-design” development paradigm that explicitly prioritizes equity, accessibility, and the active dismantling of historical barriers for the digitally and socially disenfranchised.

Abstract Empirical studies show that participation in primary schools improves the well-being, development, and skills of children with and without Special Educational Needs (SEN). However, it remains unclear to what extent children’s experiences of participation vary across (diverse) SEN and non-SEN groups and school types. The present study ( n = 147) addresses this research gap using qualitative interviews conducted in German primary schools and analyzed via a Grounded Theory approach, supplemented by descriptive quantitative analyses to capture the prevalence of children’s experiences of participation. The findings show that some children experience everyday school life as externally controlled and report that teachers normally decide learning content, tasks, and organizational processes. This is reported particularly often by children with SEN (SEN, i.e. intellectual development, learning, and social-emotional development) who attend special schools (71%). Furthermore, some children view participation as unfair, seeing it as favoring certain individuals. In creative learning contexts, some children report only limited opportunities for participation, particularly children (with or without SEN) in mainstream schools (45%). These children interpret a lack of participation as unjust. By contrast, in so-called “democracy schools”, which focus on child participation, 80% of children report extensive opportunities to get involved. There, teachers are described as learning facilitators, and participation is understood as fair and self-evident. Yet such participation is also experienced as challenging, particularly by girls and by children with SEN. The findings have implications particularly with regard to children’s rights and the structural exclusion of children with SEN.

This study investigates the causal effect of relative age at school entry on the likelihood of being identified with special educational needs (SEN) or diagnosed with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in Germany. Drawing on representative data from the National Assessment Studies (IQB) for Grades 4 and 9, we use a two-stage least squares (2SLS) instrumental variable approach, leveraging exogenous variation in school starting age created by state-specific enrollment cutoff dates. Results indicate that relatively younger students within a grade cohort are significantly more likely to be classified with SEN, particularly in the domains of learning and developmental disorders, with effects being more pronounced in Grade 9 than in Grade 4. Similarly, we find robust evidence of a relative age effect on ADHD diagnoses in Grade 4, although this effect diminishes by Grade 9. The findings suggest that age-related maturity differences systematically influence assessment and diagnostic decisions. Our results highlight the need for developmentally sensitive and bias-mitigating assessment practices that do not rely solely on teacher judgments, in order to avoid misclassification and ensure educational equity.

The process of inclusion requires more than special needs students being placed in regular classrooms because it needs schools to create educational programs which meet student needs and provide the necessary backing and resources for implementation. The study investigated teacher pedagogical skills for Special Needs Education (SNED) support in Buguias District while examining their difficulties. 80 Grade 1–6 teachers were chosen through purposive sampling to participate in the study which used a descriptive-comparative quantitative design. The researchers collected data through structured questionnaires and analyzed the results using frequency, percentage, mean, independent t-test, and F-test methods. The profile variables included sex, age, highest educational attainment, years in service, number of SNED-related trainings/seminars attended, and school classification. The results demonstrated that teachers showed high proficiency in learning disability identification while they achieved exceptional performance in managing inclusive classroom environments. The study found that sex and highest educational attainment affected pedagogical proficiency but age, years in service, number of trainings, and school classification did not impact educational outcomes. Teachers experienced challenges to a high extent, particularly in resource inadequacy, lack of psychological services, and budget constraints. Highest educational attainment significantly influenced perceived challenges, whereas other profile variables showed no significant difference. The study found that teachers showed higher commitment to inclusive education but the educational system and structural limits still existed. The study proposes a localized action plan to improve inclusive education practices in the district through professional development activities which will receive improved resource distribution and institutional support services.

This article is a review that discusses the application of learning theories in the teaching strategies used by special education teachers who teach vocational skills subjects to students with special needs (MBK) in secondary schools. The review is conducted by analysing various past studies related to the use of learning theories, particularly behaviorism and constructivism in the context of special education. The review analysed 17 selected studies published between 2016 and 2025 retrieved from Scopus, ERIC, and Google Scholar. The main focus of this review is how learning theories such as behaviorism and constructivism are applied in teaching by special education teachers and their effectiveness in supporting the development of MBK. The analysis found that the combination of these theories contributes to better conceptual understanding, improved practical skills, and more active student participation in the learning process. Some of the effective strategies identified include the use of positive reinforcement (such as praise and token economies), real-world activities, and collaborative learning environments. The review also highlights several challenges in applying these theories, including the lack of professional training, limited resources, and insufficient practical understanding among teachers. However, these obstacles can be addressed through enhanced training and ongoing professional support. This article has implications for curriculum design, teacher professional development and the creation of more inclusive and effective learning environments in vocational special education.

ABSTRACT During COVID-19 lockdowns, teachers worldwide had to quickly adapt to emergency remote teaching, impacting their instruction and assessment practices. This transition resulted in increased perceived workloads for teachers. Through a moderated mediation model using data from 3675 Portuguese teachers, this study found that the relationship between teachers’ adaptation to remote teaching and their perceived workloads was mediated by instruction and assessment. Moreover, changing assessment methodologies, as proposed in an emergency assessment policy, moderated this relationship. However, for special education teachers, these changes did not moderate the relationship, suggesting that their challenges extended beyond assessment adjustments. These findings emphasize the unique difficulties faced by special education teachers and the importance of avoiding a one-size-fits-all assessment policy in future disruptive events.

This research is motivated by the low understanding of students with intellectual disabilities at Batu State Special Needs School regarding the risks and mitigation of natural disasters, even though they are located in a geographical area prone to flash floods. This lack of knowledge creates a serious safety threat due to unpreparedness for emergency situations. The focus of this study is to evaluate the effect of the educational video entitled "I'm Ready, I'm Safe" on improving students' disaster mitigation literacy. The study applied a quantitative method with a one-group pretest-posttest pre-experimental design. The research steps included administering an initial test (pretest), providing treatment through showing the educational video six times, and a final test (posttest). Data were analyzed using a statistical sign test. The results showed a significant increase in students' understanding, where the average pretest score of 12.5 increased drastically to 92.5 in the posttest. The statistical analysis produced a calculated Z value of 2, which exceeds the critical Z table value of 1.96 at a 5% significance level. The main conclusion is that the educational video "I'm Ready, I'm Safe" has a significant effect on improving students' understanding of disaster mitigation. This media has proven to be effective as a concrete and representative learning tool in helping students with intellectual disabilities understand safety procedures through attractive, easy-to-understand visualizations to strengthen their preparedness at school in a real and appropriate manner for the safety of students in the future.

Inclusive Sports Programs for Children with Special Needs in Baguio City, Philippines: Availability, Barriers, And Community Impact

This study aims to investigate the attitudes of physical education teacher candidates toward teaching students with special needs. The study, designed as a descriptive survey, involved 284 teacher candidates studying in physical education teacher training departments at universities. Data were collected using the “Attitudes of Physical Education Teachers Toward the Education of Individuals with Disabilities-III” scale. The Mann-Whitney U-test was used for data analysis. The findings obtained as a result of the analyses revealed that the attitudes of physical education teacher candidates toward the teaching students with special needs were negative. It was determined that the attitude scores of physical education teacher candidates toward the teaching students with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder were lower than their attitude scores toward other special needs groups. In addition, it was observed that teacher candidates who had individuals with special needs in their families, who had previously taught individuals with special needs, and who had taken courses on individuals with special needs during their undergraduate education had higher attitude scores, while there was no significant difference in the attitude scores of physical education teacher candidates according to gender. In light of these findings, it is recommended that application-oriented course content be created during undergraduate education and that activities be organized in which physical education teacher candidates participate together with students with special needs, in order to contribute to the development of positive attitudes toward the teaching students with special needs among physical education teacher candidates. Cite this article as: Aydemir, U. (2026). Examining the attitudes of physical education teacher candidates toward the teaching of students with special needs. Research in Sports Science, 16, 0074, doi:10.5152/rss.2026.25074.

Innovation in inclusive learning materials in Islamic Religious Education (PAI) plays a crucial role in achieving access and equality for students with special needs (ABK). Through a literature review and content analysis, this qualitative study identified three main forms of innovation. First, multisensory media such as interactive videos, prayer cards, the Talkback System, and kinesthetic activities help students understand material according to their sensory characteristics. Second, value- and emotion-based media, such as Islamic films and exemplary stories, encourage empathy, motivation, and deepened religious meaning. Third, adaptive digital media based on AI, VR, and speech-to-text and text-to-speech features enable personalized learning for each individual. However, the implementation of these innovations remains hampered by limited resources, teacher competency, and a lack of collaboration among stakeholders. These findings underscore the importance of developing an inclusive PAI media paradigm and enhancing teacher capacity through adaptive technology. Further research is needed to directly test the effectiveness of each media in inclusive classrooms, as well as to develop technology-based PAI learning models that are scalable and easily implemented across various school contexts.

Gradual Transitions in the Educational Process of Students with Special Needs: An In-Depth Investigation of Teacher and Parent Perspectives

ABK require different treatment than children in general. This makes parents have to play a bigger role in providing care. Parental self-efficacy greatly influences parenting patterns in educating ABK. Parents with low self-efficacy tend to treat their children badly. In contrast, parents with high self-efficacy will show sensitivity, responsiveness and active coping. This research was conducted to determine the application of supportive group therapy to family self-efficacy in caring for children with special needs at SLB Tunas Mulia Nganjuk. This research method uses a quantitative approach with a pre-experimental one-group pretest-posttest design with a simple random sampling technique of 32 respondents. The research subjects were parents of students at SLB Tunas Mulia Nganjuk. The research instrument is a self-efficacy questionnaire. Data analysis was carried out using the Wilcoxon statistical test. The research results of 32 respondents before being given group supportive therapy treatment fell into the moderate category with 29 respondents (91%). The low category was 2 respondents (6%), and the high category was 1 respondent (3%). Self-efficacy increased to the high category after being given group supportive therapy treatment by 29 respondents (91%). The medium category was 3 respondents (9%). The Wilcoxon statistical test shows a result of 0.000. The value is 0.000 <0.05, then the hypothesis is accepted, which means that providing supportive group therapy has an influence in increasing family self-efficacy in caring for children with special needs at SLB Tunas Mulia Nganjuk.