Special Education Research Research Articles

Qualitative Special Education Research

This two-part special issue on qualitative research makes a case for the strength and contribution of rigorous qualitative research and previews the articles selected for inclusion in the special issue, following an open call for papers. Six papers were chosen from a total of 50 submitted abstracts.

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TABLETS AS LEARNING SUPPORT IN SPECIAL SCHOOLS

Within special education research, ICT has occupied a relatively small space, especially when it comes to implementation and pupils’ learning effects. Few studies emphasize how ICT can promote a learning environment for pupils with cognitive disadvantages. The studies conducted in Sweden are about children and young people with physical rather than cognitive disabilities. Against this background and with the view to find new ways of learning for special school pupils the present research started. The overall aim was to increase pupil participation and promote learning in special schools by means of tablets. The research project involved researchers, teachers and student assistants in research circles, a method that can in many respects be compared with action research. Three special schools, two middle schools and one high school participated in the research project in which teachers and pupils were given Tablets. The data were using four different methods: Interview, Observation, Questionnaire and Essays. The data were tested against Professor Englund’s theory of Educational Philosophies. The theory has been a valuable tool for measuring and discussing how the discourse of change has occurred. The results show improved skills and a clear declaration of intent of staff to work in a reconstructive direction. Key words: tablets, special schools, education, learning.

A Call for Examining Replication and Bias in Special Education Research

Valid, scientific research is critical for ascertaining the effects of instructional techniques on learners with disabilities and for guiding effective special education practice and policy. Researchers in fields such as psychology and medicine have identified serious and widespread shortcomings in their research literatures related to replication and bias, leading many to question the validity of research findings in these fields. Replication and bias have not been systematically examined in special education research. In this article, I explore research on replication and bias conducted in other fields, discuss the likelihood that problems in replication and bias may exist in the special education research base, propose a research agenda for investigating replication and bias in special education research, and make initial recommendations for increasing replication and reducing bias in intervention studies in special education.

Secondary Analysis of National Longitudinal Transition Study 2 Data

This review examines published secondary analyses of National Longitudinal Transition Study 2 (NLTS2) data, with a primary focus upon statistical objectives, paradigms, inferences, and methods. Its primary purpose was to determine which statistical techniques have been common in secondary analyses of NLTS2 data. The review begins with an examination of past knowledge about statistical trends in special education research and follows with a summary of results. Researchers most often used logistic regression analysis or tests of group mean differences. Null hypothesis testing was the primary inferential approach and few researchers used multilevel modeling to take into account the longitudinal design of the NLTS2 data set. By learning about past approaches to analyzing NLTS2 data, future researchers may explore alternative statistical procedures in secondary analysis of the NLTS2 data set to inform the knowledge base.

Cross-National Differences in Special Education Coverage

This study investigated the role of educational and socioeconomic factors in explaining differences in national special education coverage. Data were derived from several international and governmental sources, targeting the year 2008 and covering 143 countries. Descriptive statistics revealed huge disparities in access to special education among countries. Using a theoretical model linking socioeconomic and educational variables to differences in how many students receive special education at a national level and structural equation modeling, the authors evaluated the relationships among the variables. The structural equation model showed that gross national income per capita, adult literacy rate, educational variables, and expected years of formal schooling accounted for 77.3% of the variance in special education coverage, and that the contributions of gross national income per capita and adult literacy were unique and significantly important. The implications for special education and inclusion policy and research are discussed.

Diseño de un plan de acción tutorial universitaria para estudiantes de títulos a extinguir: El caso de Psicopedagogía= Design of an tutorial action plan for students university extinguish titles: For Psychopedagogy

We understand our task tutorial as an essential part of the responsibility of university teaching in which we seek to establish a more personal interaction between the team of teachers working directly with students, which means learning to adapt to their conditions and needs, both individual and group. The general objective that focuses the development of this work is to detect specific needs of students in action tutorial Psychopedagogy in addressing coordinated project work within the framework of the subjects of Special Education and Educational Research Methods. Our purpose is to lay the foundation for the development of an action plan to group tutorial assistance and monitoring activities of the faculty responsible for the materials involved and external actors attached to the project, at a time when the actual teaching of this title in extinction disappears. Through an experimental study, is prepared a questionnaire that assessed performance, objectives and functions assigned to tutorials, as well as the needs expressed by the students in this regard. The results showed the importance attached to the tutorial process as academic support, orientation to the study, understanding and providing resources discipline. Plan is proposed and designed as a training model that promotes student development in its facets intellectual, emotional and professional.

Evaluating Rigor in Qualitative Methodology and Research Dissemination

Despite previous and successful attempts to outline general criteria for rigor, researchers in special education have debated the application of rigor criteria, the significance or importance of small n research, the purpose of interpretivist approaches, and the generalizability of qualitative empirical results. Adding to these complications, the breadth of qualitative research methods makes a single set of universally applicable criteria difficult to identify and use. Based on input from qualitative researchers across the social sciences, we augment and expand the oft-cited criteria for rigor established in special education, thus broadening the potential application and contribution of qualitative research in the areas of disability and education. We identify exemplars from special education research and use these to illustrate ways qualitative research can push the field to strengthen the theoretical foundations of empirical work, as well as to acknowledge more forthrightly the roles of the researcher in the research endeavor.

Addressing the Gap between Case Law and Professional Practice: A Response to Zirkel

Over the past several years, Zirkel has expressed serious concern over the quantity and quality of articles published within the field of special education reviewing case law, often claiming that many of these scholarly works lack sufficient academic rigor (Zirkel, 2011a; 2011b; 2012; 2014). He contends this is symptomatic in the special education given the limited legal background that both scholars and reviewers within our field possess and that a proper analysis through a careful and impartial legal lenses reveals that the literature of special education falls short in various notable ways (Zirkel, 2014). Zirkel's most recent article, published in this issue of Behavioral Disorders, is critical of an article that reviewed recent case law addressing several areas we believe to be significant in confronting the field of educating students with emotional or behavioral disorders (E/BD; Smith, Katsiyannis, & Ryan, 2011). Although we agree with many of Zirkel's recommendations for improving the overall quality of legal articles in the field of special education, we take issue with his analysis and at times misrepresentation of the article to make his point.Again, we commend Zirkel for his recommendations for increasing the quality of scholarship by (a) having special education journals increase the number of reviewers with specialized legal expertise, (b) encouraging joint efforts between special education organizations (e.g., Council for Exceptional Children) and the Education Law Association, and (c) ensuring authors provide clear disclosures of any partisan perspective they may have on a specific issue. However, although we are in agreement with his recommendations, we find ourselves in disagreement over his findings and the method in which he builds his argument. To begin with, it is critical to identify properly the scope and purpose of the original article in question. Zirkel (2014) claims the article does not adequately serve as either an in-depth legal or literature review. We wholeheartedly agree, especially given it was never intended to do so. As clearly stated in the abstract, the article reviews recent case law for several critical areas of concern to the field today, including: (a) response to intervention (RTI) and child find procedures, (b) required mental health services, and (c) the controversial use of restraint to manage aggressive behaviors (p. 185). Our intent was not to provide a comprehensive review of case law in each of these topics in a manner appropriate for a law review intended for legal experts, especially given the fact that legal experts are not the audience of Behavioral Disorders. Instead, we aimed to inform the readership, which primarily entails special education researchers and practitioners of recent legal developments, and point to emerging trends and variability of issues involved.Perhaps the nexus of our substantive disagreements with Zirkel arises from his view of the field from a purely legal perspective, specifically his contention that only seminal cases from the highest courts matter, given that these carry the greatest significance. Although it is obvious, as a matter of law, the relative influence of appellate courts versus lower courts (indeed, administrative due process hearings) with regard to precedence, we believe that practitioners will be well served to have exposure to emerging issues (often decisions by hearing officers and lower courts). We also disagree with his notion that our field will benefit from legally pure articles that offer nothing beyond straight reporting of legal findings (as he often does in his articles) and leave the heavy work of drawing implications to the reader. Instead, we believe that providing the appropriate context and linkages that inform and indeed advance educational practice is most useful to researchers and practitioners in education.We are, however, confounded by his claim that our identification of critical con- cerns to the field of educating students with E/ BD was questionable. …

Zur Sichtbarkeit der Fachzeitschrift „Empirische Sonderpädagogik“ – Eine bibliometrische Analyse

Until now „Emprische Sonderpadagogik“ (ESP) is not indexed by commercial citation databases. Therefore, we conducted citation analyses based on data from GoogleScholar to evaluate its scientific relevance. This allows us to compare ESP to other scientific journals publishing papers on special education research and reveals development potentialities. As measured by citations per paper ESP is absolutely competitive: Only two out of seven analyzed journals show higher citation rates. Also the percentage of non-cited papers undercuts the majority of the other journals. However, there is room for improvement regarding search engine-friendly preparation of papers: Merely forty percent of them are indexed in GoogleScholar. In this regard, we provide ideas to promptly increase the visibility of ESP papers.

Pre-vocational Skills Laboratory: Development and Investigation of a Web-based Environment for Students with Autism

The use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in educating children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a dynamic field linking both special education and learning technologies research areas. This paper reports on the design and development of Pre-Vocational Skills Laboratory, a Web-based learning environment aiming to support students with ASD towards developing pre-vocational skills. The first section addresses theoretical foundations regarding ICT applications in educating and supporting individuals with ASD. The key design features, the structure and the functionality of the system are analytically presented. Following, preliminary findings regarding an instructional intervention implemented in a special education school in Greece are also presented. The paper concludes that the environment can help students with autism to acquire pre-vocational skills, while the combination of multiple source data (observation notes, system log files and biofeedback data) can offer valuable information regarding the design of effective individualized interventions.

Inclusive Education in Norway: Historical Roots and Present Challenges

This is the publisher's version of an article published in Journal of special education research. The article can be found on publisher's website by following this link: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/specialeducation/2/2/2_13-6/_article

Special Education Teacher Candidate Assessment

Teacher preparation has been under intense scrutiny in recent years. In order for preparation of special education teacher candidates to remain viable, candidate assessment practices must apply practices identified in the extant literature base, while special education teacher education researchers must extend this base with rigorous efforts to link preservice candidate assessment of knowledge, skills, and dispositions, to authentic experiences in the field, in-service professional practice, and student achievement. The authors review prior research on special education candidate assessment from 2000 to the present in three primary domains: skills and knowledge related to academics, behavior, collaboration, and transition; dispositional factors, including attitudes about disability, inclusion, and diversity; and authentic, field-based assessments, including measures of candidates’ impact on students and their induction experiences. Implications for policy and practice are provided.

Including ideology

Ellen Brantlinger's paper, Using ideology: cases of non-recognition of the politics of research and practice in special education (Brantlinger, E. 1997. Using ideology: Cases of nonrecognition of the politics of research and practice in special education. Review of Educational Research 67, no. 4: 425–59), was of considerable significance in drawing attention to the central role of ideology in research in special and inclusive education. Her powerful critique is re-examined in this paper, together with some reflections on the field and on her own work within it. These reflections were obtained in an interview with Ellen for a book (Allan, J., and R. Slee 2008. Doing inclusive education research. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense). The paper concludes with a set of propositions, drawing on Ellen's scholarship, which provide guidance on how to examine the work of ideology.

Considering the Impact of Preservice Teacher Beliefs on Future Practice

Preservice teacher beliefs merit additional attention from special education teacher-educators. Given current policy and reforms aimed at improving outcomes for students with disabilities and increasing the adoption of evidence-based practices, teacher-educators should recognize the barrier that preservice teacher beliefs can pose and consider beliefs as a potential contributor to the longstanding gap between research and practice in special education. Two particular belief constructs addressed in this article are (a) self-efficacy and (b) credibility for information sources. Each of these influences preservice teacher confidence, motivation, decision making, and actions in service of students with disabilities, impacting instructional decision making and treatment of children.

Toward Improved Accuracy: A Response to Kauffman and Badar

The number of children estimated to suffer mental health disorders, and therefore, creating the need for special education services for children with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD), is between 5% and 25% of children under the age of 18 (Brauner & Stephens, 2006). Admittedly, not all children with EBD have been identified and served, but many children have been identified as eligible for special education services as part of IDEIA regulation. Children identified with EBD are eligible for a variety of special education services. These services may be applied to interventions (or treatments, in mental health terminology) delivered in a regular classroom (e.g., supplementary aids and services, positive behavior intervention plans), while other services may require selfcontained or pullout programming for all or part of the school day. Regardless of the method, the goal of special education is to improve the academic, behavioral, and emotional outcomes for children identified with EBD.Although the goal of special education is improved child outcomes, we agree with the conclusion of Kauffman and Badar (2013) that parents and children may be influenced by social stigma associated with the classification, which may cause families to neglect or even decline special education services. In an attempt to increase special education participation by lessening the stigma associated with EBD identification, Kauffman and Badar offer four suggestions aimed at changing the public perception of special education services including: (a) discussing with stakeholders (e.g., parents, children) differences in behavior resulting from treatment in clear, understandable terms; (b) recognizing the reality of such differences due to treatment and its impact on students' learning; (c) emphasizing to stakeholders the benefits of special education; and (d) working to implement specialized instructional interventions (or treatments) as intended and planned.We support these recommendations as eminently practical and because they are based on sound judgment and experience. These suggestions may help to reduce some stigma in individual cases. Our concern is that they address some of the indicators of stigma but not the underlying causes. They are, therefore, not likely to address the issue of stigma and its impact on children, families, and the discipline of special education more broadly. Thus, stigma is likely to remain because the causes have not been adequately addressed. And, like a disease, the symptoms, or stigma is likely to worsen; rendering the four recommendations of Kauffman and Badar increasingly less effective with time.The stigma problem associated with EBD is daunting. Accordingly, we suggest that the boldness required to address it should be commensurate with the ubiquity of concerns about special education reflected in the popular and professional media. Returning to the disease metaphor, invasive and uncomfortable treatments are now required to salvage the patient, which in this case is the special education enterprise for EBD.At the time of this writing (January 8, 2014) for example, a cover letter was released by the United States Secretary of Education Arnie Duncan, for a report calling on schools to reconsider and refrain from the widespread application of harsh disciplinary practices in schools (U.S. Department of Education, 2014). It included the following quote:Although students who receive special education services represent 12 percent of students in the country, they make up 19 percent of students suspended in school, 20 percent of students receiving out-of-school suspension once, 25 percent of students receiving multiple out-of-school suspensions, 19 percent of students expelled, 23 percent of students referred to law enforcement, and 23 percent of students receiving a school-related arrest, (p. i)The scientific literature on EBD-including works published by well-regarded special education researchers in this journal-is also replete with nonsupportive conclusions about special education participation. …

Evaluating the Evidence Base of Video Analysis

Special education teacher development is continually studied to determine best practices for improving teacher quality and promoting student learning. Video analysis is commonly included in teacher development targeting both teacher thinking and practice intended to improve learning opportunities for students. Positive research findings support video analysis as a teacher development tool, but the practice has not been deemed evidence based. In this evaluation, quality indicators, adapted from special education research and government recommendations, were used to determine whether video analysis is an evidence-based practice for developing special education pre-service and in-service teachers. A systematic literature search resulted in 113 identified articles which were narrowed to seven experimental studies using screening criteria adapted from What Works Clearing House. Significant findings supported video analysis across all seven studies, and the overall quality of the published research suggests video analysis is a promising practice. Implications and recommendations for special education teacher development are discussed.

Exploring and developing reciprocity in research design

The researcher–participant relationship has the potential to be reciprocal, a relationship in which each contributes something the other needs or desires. Participants devote their time, effort, experiences, and wisdom to inform and shape the researcher’s study. The researcher’s scope, depth, and nature of inquiry introduce vulnerability to participants’ lives. In turn, researchers are susceptible to variable involvement and apathy from participants. While neither the relational aspect of research nor its potential for reciprocity is new, we are concerned that the concept is overshadowed in the current, positivistic culture of evidence in education research. Using vignettes from our special education research, we describe the affordances of a stance of reciprocity, illustrating the contours of the component in recruitment, participation, analysis, and presentation. We ask: How do truth traditions support reciprocity? How do we authentically reciprocate participants’ efforts throughout the research process? And finally, how might qualitative work embrace reciprocity and lead education research to a broader conceptualization of evidence, one that expands the transformative potential of our collective work?

Promoting Self-Determination of Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing

Self-determination is a combination of attitudes, knowledge, and skills that enables individuals to make choices and engage in goal-directed, self-regulated behavior. Research in special education has demonstrated the benefits of promoting self-determination in achieving positive adult outcomes. However, to date, very little has been written about self-determination as it relates to the education of students who are deaf or hard of hearing. This article provides an overview of self-determination, suggestions for instructional planning, and guidance on resources that can be used to gather additional information.

Treatment Fidelity in Early Childhood Special Education Research

Although this special issue on treatment fidelity is extremely timely for the field of early childhood special education (ECSE), this issue comes somewhat late in the history of conversations about the importance of information about treatment implementation. In 1980, Billingsley, White, and Munson discussed the need for treatment fidelity reliability in single case design studies. Blase, Fixsen, and Phillips (1984) pointed out the need to discriminate implementation outcomes from effectiveness outcomes in single-case and group design studies. In the two decades that followed, Fixsen, Blase, and others argued that only when effective practices and programs are fully implemented should we expect positive outcomes (Bernfeld, 2001; Fixsen & Blase, 1993; Institute of Medicine- Committee on Quality of Health Care in America, 2001; Washington State Institute for Public Policy, 2002; cited in Fixsen, Naoom, Blase, Friedman, & Wallace, 2005). Discussion of treatment fidelity has become more frequent in the last decade, fueled by changing standards for methodological rigor in educational research and public concern for implementing evidence-based practices in school and community settings (e.g., Borrelli, 2011; Elliott & Mihalic, 2004; Kratochwill & Stoiber, 2002; Stockard, 2010).The current issue provides representative sample of where the field of ECSE stands in the evolving consideration of implementation fidelity. These six articles link emergent conceptual frameworks in treatment implementation fidelity to the training and coaching process used for professional development (PD) in ECSE and to measuring fidelity of interventions in literacy, behavior disorders, social emotional support, and family interventions. Two articles report specifically on the progress toward reporting implementation fidelity in the field of ECSE.Dunst, Trivette, and Raab (p. 85) introduce an implementation science framework and provide specifications for measuring fidelity in ECSE research. In introducing this framework, they propose the use of the term implementation to refer to a specific set of [professional development] activities designed to put into practice an [intervention] activity. They argue that the use of any type of early childhood intervention practice requires attention to not only the fidelity of the intervention practice but also the fidelity of the methods used to promote the use of that practice. They also point out the need for understanding the active ingredients of implementation practices and interventions. Essentially, measurement of fidelity should index the active ingredients of implementation and intervention; further, the determination of active ingredients should be linked to research-based evidence of effectiveness. Dunst et al. provide conceptual model and analytical framework for linking variations in implementation fidelity, variations in the intervention as delivered, and practice outcomes for children and families. They illustrate the application of this model using data from Head Start research project in which teachers were taught to implement early literacy practices.Powell and Diamond's (p. 102) argument for the application of implementation science principles in examining PD in experimental studies of language and literacy instruction for preschoolers follows the logic offered by Dunst et al. Powell and Diamond propose that critical link in the PD pathway, the individualized coaching provided to teachers as means of training them to use new intervention procedure, is largely black box. They use their conceptual framework for coaching (Powell & Diamond, 2013) that emphasizes structure, content, and process to describe the impact of coaching on teachers' implementation of evidence-based literacy practices. The procedures for coaching were derived from series of iterative experimental PD studies. In this issue, they report data from hybrid coaching-based PD program offered to Head Start teachers. …