Spanish Elite Research Articles

Influence of Ball Position on Playing Space in Spanish Elite Women's Football Match-Play

The aims of this study were to examine the playing area in female football matches according to the position of the ball. We investigated: 1) the space between the two offside lines (the length), 2) the width, 3) the distance from the least advanced defender to the goal line in defensive activity, 4) the distance from the least advanced attacker to her goal line in attacking activity, 5) the distance between the goalkeeper and her nearest attacking team mate, and 6) the distance between the goalkeeper and her nearest defending team mate. With these measurements we were also able to obtain 7) the individual playing area used during female professional football matches. Data were collected during Spanish matches and notated post-event using the Amisco® system. A total of 2756 game situations were coded from four games. The distribution of players was significantly (p<0.001) wider and shallower when the ball was in the central areas of the field (37.07 m × 43.84 m “zone 3” and 36.36 m × 42.82 m “zone 4”) than when the ball was in a “building up play” zone (43.31 m × 39.24 m “zone 1”), and the finishing and scoring zone (48.14 m × 39.80 m “zone 6”). The values obtained for the individual playing area varied between 77.91 m2 and 96m2. The players stood further from the goals depending on the position of the ball. The spaces at the back of the defensive line changed from 45.75 m to 6.90 m (to the goal line) depending on the position of the ball. In addition, the spaces at the back of the less advanced attacking line changed from 16.45 m to 52.24 m, depending on the position of the ball. There were significant differences (p<0.05) in playing spaces between all zones. The results show that the spaces were significantly different depending on the ball position. Changes in playing space are presented as an important factor to consider when designing game-specific training activities for female football.

Dallas Museum of Art Biombo: Elite Spanish Identity and Hybridity in 18th Century Colonial Latin America

Paper explores the biombo as an exemplary model of hybridity that consolidated European, Asian, and Latin American histories using a late 18th century example found in the collection of the Dallas Museum of Art.

ACTN3 R577X Polymorphism and Explosive Leg-Muscle Power in Elite Basketball Players

To determine the association of the ACTN3 R577X polymorphism with leg-muscle explosive power in Spanish (white) elite basketball players and controls. 100 (60 men) elite basketball players (cases) and 283 nonathletic controls. The authors assessed power performance by means of the vertical-squat and countermovement-jump tests. Genotype distributions did not differ between groups (cases: 37.0% [RR], 42.0% [RX], and 21.0% [XX]; controls: 31.8% [RR], 49.8% [RX], and 18.4% [XX]; P = .353). The authors did not observe any effect of the ACTN3 R577X polymorphism on study phenotypes in either group, including when they performed the analyses separately in men and women. They found no association between the ACTN3 R577X polymorphism and the likelihood of being an elite basketball player using the dominant or the recessive model, and the results remained unaltered when the analyses were adjusted for sex, weight, height, and age or when performed for men and women separately. Although the ACTN3 R577X is associated with explosive muscle performance and this phenotype is important in the sport of basketball (ie, during jumps), the authors found no association with leg explosive power in elite basket players or with the status of being this type of athlete.

ACTN3 genotype in Spanish elite swimmers: No “heterozygous advantage”

The aim of the present case-control study was to examine the association of the ACTN3 R577X genotype with elite swimming status. We compared a group of Spanish (Caucasian) elite swimmers (n = 88) with other cohorts of the same ethnic origin, i.e., nonathletic controls (n = 343) and other types of athletes who are in both end-points of the sports performance continuum, i.e., world-class power (n = 119) and endurance male athletes (n = 154). Swimmers had a lower odds ratio (OR) of having the RX genotype [1.815, 95% confidence intervals (CI): 0.899-3.664] compared with nonathletic controls, yet the association did not reach statistical significance (P = 0.096). Endurance athletes had greater OR of having the XX genotype (OR: 2.88, 95% CI: 1.162-7.135, P = 0.022), or the RX+XX genotype (OR: 1.903, 95% CI: 1.015-3.567, P = 0.045) compared with swimmers. No other association was found. In summary, we did not observe an association between the ACTN3 R577X polymorphism and elite swimmer's status, suggesting that any influence of this polymorphism is not of sufficient magnitude as to significantly influence elite swimming performance, at least in Spanish athletes.

Cardiac Autonomic Adaptations in Elite Spanish Soccer Players During Preseason

The purpose of this study was to evaluate changes in autonomic control of heart rate (HR) and fitness in a group of elite soccer players during the preseason. Eight professional male soccer players competing in the Spanish First Division were evaluated in July (wk 1) and September (wk 8) with night-time HR variability (HRV) over 4 different days, ultra-short-term HR recovery (HRR) during a small-sided-games session, Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test level 1 (Yo-Yo IR1), and a field test for determination of maximum aerobic speed. Players exhibited a greater HRV and a faster ultra-short-term HRR at wk 8, with the players with a lower HRV at wk 1 exhibiting the greatest improvements at wk 8. However, there were unclear improvements in performance parameters, with maximum HR (HRmax) being reduced over the preseason period. This change in HRmax was correlated with the change in short-term HRV parameters (ρ = 0.829, P = .042). Large correlations were observed among HRV, ultra-short-term HRR, and field performance parameters only at wk 8. Furthermore, the variation (%) of the root-mean-square of successive differences between R-R intervals was increased during the preseason (12.95% ± 15.14% to 29.39% ± 21.93%, P = .013) and significantly correlated (r = .898, P = .006) with Yo-Yo IR1 performance (~2600 ± 786 m) at wk 8. The current results support the appropriateness and practicality of night-time HRV and ultra-short-term HRR for evaluation of autonomic adaptations in professional soccer players, despite the unclear improvements in specific field performance parameters.

Match running performance in Spanish elite male rugby union using global positioning system

The aim of this study was to analyze the movement patterns and physiological demands of an international level male Rugby Union team. Fourteen samples of running performance, exercise intensity, acceleration and impacts to the body were taken over the course of 3 games using a GPS device. The players covered a mean distance of 6162 m per game, with the forwards covering 5853 m and the backs 6471 m at average speeds throughout the games of 4.3 km/h and 4.77 km/h, respectively. For more than 75.5% and 68.5% of the game forwards and backs, respectively, were exposed to heart rates above 80% of their maximal heart rate. The player’s time-related work to rest ratio was 1:0.8. Rugby Union can be considered a high intensity intermittent team sport with many and varied non-locomotor activities and actions that occur during the playing of matches. These actions and activities greatly increase the exercise intensity but are registered as being low speed running. Each position in the field requires specific physiological demands.

Natives, Europeans, and Africans in Colonial Campeche: History and Archaeology

In 1540, 30 Spanish conquistadors founded the municipality of Campeche as part of the Spanish Crown’s colonization of the Yucatán Peninsula. In 2000, a team of multinational, multidisciplinary researchers excavated the recently discovered church and associated cemetery that ministered to the residents of Campeche from its founding until the early seventeenth century. This edited volume details those excavations and the results of the ensuing decade of analysis. Written for a broad scholarly audience, the volume eloquently presents and examines a wealth of new data about life, death, and the complexity of social relationships in early colonial Campeche.Each chapter offers a different analytical approach to the study of the church and cemetery. Some of the contributors mine archival sources for historical data about the lives of those living in colonial Campeche. Others seek similar information by examining the excavated skeletons for evidence of disease and stress markers, oral pathologies, and body modifications. Still others perform strontium isotope analysis to determine the buried individuals’ places of origin, and carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis to determine their diets. Perhaps the most surprising and significant find was that the graveyard included individuals of European, indigenous, and African descent, and that their burials were not in any way differentiated or segregated. Rather, all individuals who lived in early colonial Campeche, regardless of descent, were buried in the same manner in the same unpartitioned graveyard.Such a discovery is notable for at least two reasons. First, it confirms that Africans were present in colonial Campeche from its very founding. Historical documents from colonial Yucatán are often silent on the subject of Africans. As Matthew Restall (p. 195) notes, “enslaved Africans were perceived as property and thus no more worthy of mention than the horses and carriages of the Spanish elite . . . . But, like horses and [carriages], Africans were needed, they were ubiquitous, and they were taken for granted.” The skeletons from the Campeche cemetery substantiate this statement and provide strong physical evidence of the presence of Africans in the Yucatán Peninsula during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.Second, the existence of a multiethnic, unsegregated cemetery provides new insights into the complex nature of social relationships in early colonial Yucatán. The existence of such a cemetery is surprising, given that individuals of various descent were treated so inequitably in life. The exact implications of their seemingly equitable treatment in death, however, remain uncertain and open to debate. One strength of the volume is that different contributors offer different interpretations of the same data. Some take the existence of an unsegregated cemetery as evidence of a “lack of social hierarchy among the dead buried [there]” (p. 80). Others suggest that, for the individuals of African and indigenous descent, “their location in death symbolized their location in life, adjacent to Spaniards in roles of attached subordination” (p. 197). Rather than proposing a single set of answers about the graveyard, the volume offers multiple interpretations and allows the reader to draw her or his own conclusions.These debates about the meanings and implications of the cemetery underscore the effectiveness of combining historical and archaeological data and indeed could not take place without doing so. As the volume editors note, historical and archaeological evidence can complement, verify, and contradict each other. Documents provide substantial contextual information about material remains, and material remains provide important information about individuals who did not commonly write documents and who were not commonly mentioned in them. Consequently, the multidisciplinary approach adopted in the volume allows for a more complex and comprehensive understanding of the past.The goals of the volume are at least threefold: to add complexity and nuance to discussions of early colonial life in Latin America; to provide a more inclusive view of the past by exploring the contributions of colonial Yucatán’s African and indigenous residents; and to emphasize the often overlooked role of Africans in the creation of modern identity in Campeche. Each of these goals is laudable and the authors achieve them with skill and grace. The volume further serves as a model of how effectively to combine historical and archaeological data to gain a more complete and sophisticated understanding of the past. Overall, the contributors raise more questions than they answer, and scholars should look forward to the discussions and debates that the volume will hopefully engender.

Ricos, nobles y poderosos: la imagen de los mercaderes genoveses del Reino de Granada en la Edad Moderna

Historiography on the image of Genoese merchants in Spain in the Modern Age, almost always using literary sources, has resulted in a pejorative view of the Ligurian. Greedy profiteers, unscrupulous lenders, one of the causes of the decline of the Spanish Monarchy. However, locally, between the elites and the people, this vision is not as negative or at least, not as biased. In the Kingdom of Granada, Genoese are powerful allies, customers, clients and patrons of the spanish elite, splendid match for marriageable daughters and patrons of arts and introducers of architectural styles. Their wealth and power is admired and envied, becoming the Genoese a real cultural and religious reference for oligarchies of Granada. This article is about the image of Genoese merchants through civil and religious chronicles, commercial letters, judicial and notarized documents in Granada. In these sources, the utmost negative view becomes more positive, the Genoese were perceived as wealthy, powerful and nobles, although they were really not.

La genealogía descendente de María de Aguilar: evidencia del mestizaje colonial temprano en Costa Rica

Por mucho tiempo historiadores y genealogistas han interpretado que la elite dominante que se formó tras la conquista española era exclusivamente europea. Se reconstruyó una genealogía matrilineal que incluye expresidentes y altos dignatarios religiosos recientes de Costa Rica, hasta sus ancestros en la sociedad Colonial temprana en el siglo XVII, y se comparó la concordancia entre las afiliaciones étnicas deducidas a partir de los registros históricos y la herencia de los linajes maternos. Se analizó el ADN mitocondrial de descendientes actuales de este linaje. El linaje ADNmt observado corresponde con una ancestría amerindia. Estos resultados corroboran que un flujo de genes amerindios tuvo lugar hacia el grupo español en las primeras generaciones de la sociedad colonial, en contraste con las ideas generalmente aceptadas de que la elite española evitaba los matrimonios exogámicos con grupos de otro origen étnico.

Bárbara O. Reyes . Private Women, Public Lives: Gender and the Missions of the Californias . Austin : University of Texas Press . 2009 . Pp. xi, 231. $50.00.

This book examines how the colonizing mission system in Alta and Baja California shaped the lives of early indigenous and Spanish-speaking peoples by focusing on the experiences of three women: Bárbara Gandiaga, Eulalia Callis, and Eulalia Pérez. While scholars have explored issues of gender, conquest, and power in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century California and have examined the lives of Callis and Pérez in particular, Bárbara O. Reyes's centering of women's relationships to the mission project (as she refers to it) brings their importance in reproducing the social and racial hierarchies of power and the conquest and colonization of the region to the fore. In analyzing women's unequal relationships to the mission system, Reyes demonstrates that women's private lives were decidedly public and that private and public zones on the frontier overlapped, were dependent, and constantly changed. This study shows that women's ability to circumvent the colonial order depended upon their status. While Eulalia Callis, an elite Spanish woman, publicly challenged her Spanish spouse's honor and was reprimanded for doing so, the Native woman Bárbara Gandiaga's accusation of the murder of two Spanish priests resulted in much harsher consequences: death by gunshot. Instances such as these, Reyes argues, points to a California socio-racial order in which Native women experienced coercion and violence, mestizas (racially mixed, Spanish-Indian women) exercised some mobility, especially if they worked for the mission project, and Spanish elite women had access to comforts denied to their lesser female peers, although they still had to follow Spanish codes of virtue and honor, which were oppressive to women.

Prostitution and the Captain's Wife: A Public and Notorious Scandal in Eighteenth-Century Cartagena de Indias

Prostitution and the Captain's WifeA Public and Notorious Scandal in Eighteenth-Century Cartagena de Indias Nicole von Germeten (bio) … One hears of this in private conversations and in public gossip cliques. It is spoken of without shame, frankly, as a sufficiently notorious subject… Some listen and speak, others take note, and others see. Oh God, what a formidable scandal! In this great gathering of gossip, of opinions and experiences, your grace should feel, and I share this feeling, not only the destruction of your honor through its declining value and that of your house by its viciousness but also the widespread ruin [caused] by the scandal. Your grace is judged by men, and you should not think that these men are only the corrupt, malevolent ones with little fear of God. No, Señor don Juan. Sensible, cautious, wise, zealous and god-fearing men of authority in this city are also internally consumed by the publicity of this case … [This scandal] is pestilential for the entire republic.1 In 1735, doña Luisa Llerena Polo de Aguilar, a woman of Spanish descent born and bred in Cartagena de Indias (modern-day Colombia) married don Francisco Piñero, a Spanish soldier. A year later, the Spanish crown created Cartagena's batallón fijo (permanent battalion) to defend the Caribbean coast of South America from foreign invasions and contraband trade. Don Piñero joined the battalion with the rank of ayudante mayor.2 In 1737, the governor of Cartagena rewarded Piñero's excellent service in helping organize the battalion by promoting him to captain. Eventually Piñero had command of over fifty artillerymen.3 In 1741, the batallón fijo [End Page 263] helped the city withstand an attack by 186 English ships led by Admiral Edward Vernon.4 Along with the military and geopolitical threat of England's expanding power in the Caribbean in the mid-eighteenth century, the city of Cartagena experienced the dishonor and shame of a sex scandal, at the center of which was none other than captain Piñero. Not long after this scandal unfolded, the batallón fijo, "an honorable [auténtica] military unit of the Army of the Spanish Crown," disbanded.5 Because of the actions of Piñero, doña Luisa and her alleged lover, a merchant named don Juan Arechederreta, in the 1740s and 50s, Cartagena's military, religious personnel, governor, and Spanish society as a whole could not stop talking about adultery and lenoncinio (procuring) among the Spanish elite officer class. While the main participants were never exactly caught in the act, their presumed affair, and the fact Captain Piñero allegedly both tolerated and profited from it, so disturbed the city that complaints were sent to the Council of the Indies. What most threatened and exasperated the local church, state, and military authorities was the fact that the three actors in this scandal appeared to disregard the censure and denunciations pronounced publicly by the governor, military officers, and members of both the Dominican and Jesuit orders. These witnesses observed that don Francisco and doña Luisa had certainly violated morality but their greater offense was disregarding the rules of honorable behavior: they persisted in continuing their behavior despite the acknowledged injunctions of the Hispanic honor code. Their disregard for convention shamed the local Spanish authority figures; and because this disgrace reflected poorly on the effective power of the governor, the person who represented the Spanish crown in Cartagena, the case came before the Council of the Indies in Seville. As a Spanish elite woman and a Spanish military officer, don Francisco and doña Luisa represented in theory those members of society most obliged to uphold the Mediterranean and Hispanic honor code.6 Early modern Spanish prescriptive literature, especially the often cited works of Juan Luis Vives and Fray Luis de León, placed female sexual modesty at the pinnacle of all virtues, and married it to men's obligation to commit violent acts to protect weak and susceptible women from their own sexuality.7 Case studies from secondary works such as Lyman Johnson and Sonya Lipsett-Rivera's Faces of Honor and several other archive–based studies...

Racism and xenophobia in immigrants’ discourse: the case of Argentines in Spain

This study examines how racist and xenophobic discourses of Spanish elite groups are appropriated and contested in an Internet forum for Argentines in Spain. Specifically, I examine the discursive strategies involved in the identification of the in-group and the out-group (Spanish citizens vs immigrants), the descriptions of the social actors, and the stances adopted by the participants in the forum, three dimensions that have been found to be key in the production of xeno-racist discourses. The results show that this group of forum participants aligns with the racist and anti-racist ideologies articulated in political debates and the mass media in Spain, thus providing evidence of racist and xenophobic discourses working in a top—down fashion. At the same time, however, the analysis offers an example of how the discourses of dominant social groups can be challenged and reformulated to serve the purposes of the subordinate social groups.

The Structural Characteristics of Sport Organisations: Differentiation within Elite Spanish Professional Football Clubs

The principal task of a professional football (soccer) club is to form a competitive team that participates in official competitions and achieves the sporting successes expected by its members and fans. This fundamental task constitutes the system which, in relation with its environment, defines subsystems in order to respond efficiently to the contextual challenges faced by the organization. Among these, the processes of professionalization and commercialization have particularly affected sports organizations. The most important subsystems distinguished by a club in Spanish professional football are: sport, communication, external relations, commerce, finance, wealth management, marketing, facilities, and legal and social affairs. All these areas are related to the accomplishment of the above-mentioned main task and some of them can be associated with the organizations' structural response to the challenges of professionalization and commercialization.

The Conditioning Services in Elite Spanish Clubs of Team Sports

This study compares the conditioning services of Spanish sports teams: From soccer and basketball professional leagues, and top-division amateur leagues for handball, volleyball, indoor soccer, and field hockey. A survey was administered to those responsible for the conditioning preparation. The response rate was 82% (77 of 94). The teams were divided into class A and class B, with class A having the best performance. Fifty eight percent of the professional teams have hired a full-time person, with university degree, exclusively for the conditioning. The percentage was significantly less in amateur leagues for handball, volleyball, and field hockey: class A teams (41%), class B teams (0%). A small percentage of the Physical Conditioning Coaches (PCCs) continued their academic education (22%), and the consultation of scientific journals (5%). Only 6% of the PCCs did not mention deficiencies in the context of work. The main complaints are associated with the strength-training equipment and facilities. In class B teams of the amateur leagues, significant deficiencies were found in almost all the variables within the training environment. These results show significant deficiencies in the conditioning services offered by teams to their players, especially in no-professional teams and in the teams with lower performance level. Spanish PCCs should take advantage of advances made through scientific research in the area of conditioning by acquiring Master's Degrees and consulting peer-reviewed journals. The club's managers and/or coaches must be aware of the importance of conditioning for improving the training environment. Both aspects would increase the likelihood that better training or rehabilitation procedures would be developed at the club.

Relative age effect in Spanish association football: Its extent and implications for wasted potential

Spain is one of the largest and most successful powers in international youth football, but this success has not extended to the national team. This lack of continued success seems to indicate a loss of potential. The relative age effect has been detected in football in many countries. Understanding the extent of this bias in the youth teams of Spanish elite clubs may help to improve selection processes and reduce the waste of potential. Comparisons between players from: the Spanish Professional Football League, all age categories of these clubs' youth teams, the Under-17 to Under-21 national teams, the national team, and the Spanish population, show a constant tendency to under-represent players from the later months of the selection year at all age groups of youth and Under-17 to Under-21 national teams. Professional and national team players show a similar but diminished behaviour that weakens with ageing, which suggests that talent identification and selection processes can be improved to help better identify potential talent early on and minimize wasted potential.

Integration in Europe of human genetics results obtained by Spaniards in the USA: A historical perspective

The mobility of Spanish biochemists from Europe to the United States over the past 80 years (1927–2006) is approached from a historical perspective. The academic community on human genetics has awarded this emigrated Spanish community with the Nobel prize as well as other awards from European foundations. The vertical/horizontal integration methodology offers an opportunity to understand the extremely satisfactory history of a small European community overseas. To piece the puzzle together, continuous reference is made to the theory of systems. To test and use this holistic history, the circulation of the knowledge produced on cancer has been studied as intrinsically related to time by using the algorithmic historiography. Francisco Duran Reynals and Severo Ochoa have been selected as examples of the vertical integration. The former one because he was the director of an important collaborator, his own wife; the latter, as the founder of a Spanish specific research school in America based in his own work. The simultaneous stay of several young Spanish scientists at the Columbia University (Mariano Barbacid, Manuel Perucho and Ángel Pellicer) serves to design the horizontal integration, to create a holon hierarchy to reflect the criteria of subsidiarity and acceptability, and to focus on the Spanish discoveries and contributions to cancer research. The transatlantic flows of knowledge generated by the Spanish elite of biochemists in the USA from 1927 on define a network of geographical displacements. As a result, the social structure thus visualizes the identity of the international mobility of scientists who leave for Europe/USA, and their return to Spain. A model of the brain drain of professionals to the USA, that retain 80% of the Spanish cancer researchers, is developed.

Shifting Ground: Elite Sponsorship of the Cult of Christ of the Earthquakes in Eighteenth-Century Cusco

The cult of Christ of the Earthquakes, a statue enshrined in the cathedral of Cusco, Peru, began after a massive earthquake in 1650 and remains vibrant today. Recent scholarship has suggested that the cult developed among indigenous Andeans and that the Christ has always embodied aspects of traditional, non-Christian Andean deities. Based on substantial archival documentation and visual sources, this article counters that interpretation. It shows that during the colonial period, and especially in the eighteenth century, the cult of Christ of the Earthquakes had an important elite Spanish and creole base, and that the Christ was often cast as the enemy of non-Christian Andean religion. The elite basis of the cult was reinforced by the 'interiorization' of the statue within the cathedral, a move that was accomplished by the statue's confraternity and expressed in multiple statue paintings of the image. This study contributes to our understanding of the origins of the cult of Christ of the Earthquakes while it provides insight into the sources of Hispanic power in late colonial Cusco.

Nutritional Adequacy of Different Menu Settings in Elite Spanish Adolescent Soccer Players

The article describes a study that evaluated the adequacy of 2 different menu settings in a group of elite adolescent Spanish soccer players. Five-day food intake was assessed on 2 occasions, while athletes were consuming a flexible "buffet-style" diet (B; n = 33) and a fixed "menu-style" diet (M; n = 29). For all principal meals of the day food weighing was performed, and snacks were recorded by self-report. M provided significantly higher total energy and carbohydrate intakes than B. Breakfast and snacks both provided more energy in M. Calories obtained from fat were excessive in both settings. Calcium and vitamin D were below recommendations in B but not in M. Fiber, magnesium, folate, vitamin A, and vitamin E intake fell below recommended values in both settings. M provided significantly greater quantities of magnesium and vitamins D and E. Both feeding options were far from optimal in satisfying current scientifically based recommendations for active adolescents.

Mitochondrial haplogroup T is negatively associated with the status of elite endurance athlete

Mitochondrial function is absolutely necessary to supply the energy required for muscles, and germ line mutations in mitochondrial genes have been related with impaired cardiac function and exercise intolerance. In addition, alleles at several polymorphic sites in mtDNA define nine common haplogroups, and some of these haplogroups have been implicated in the risk of developing several diseases. In this study, we analysed the association between mtHaplogroups and the capacity to reach the status of elite endurance athlete. DNA was obtained from blood leukocytes of 95 Spanish elite endurance athletes and 250 healthy male population controls. We analysed eight mitochondrial polymorphisms and the frequencies were statistically compared between elite athletes and controls. Haplogroup T, specifically defined by 13368A, was significantly less frequent among elite endurance athletes ( p = 0.012, Fisher’s exact test). Our study suggests that allele 13368A and mitochondrial haplogroup T might be a marker negatively associated with the status of elite endurance athlete. This mitochondrial variant could be related with a lower capacity to respond to endurance training, through unknown mechanisms involving a less efficient mitochondrial workload.

Excluir para ser: Procesos identitarios y fronteras sociales en la América hispánica (XVII–XVIII)

Excluir para ser: Procesos identitarios y fronteras sociales en la América hispánica (XVII–XVIII)