Abstract Wittgenstein's naturalism illuminates our ordinary normative practices of giving and asking for reasons and also related ‘philosophical’ conceptions of knowledge inspired by, for example, Sellars's image of the ‘space of reasons’. Some propose that the relevant naturalism motivates scepticism about the ‘space of reasons’ insofar as it allegedly renders inexplicable how the space of reasons, intentionality and normativity quite generally, can be reconciled with the space of causation or the ‘space of nature’. Sellars insists that the normativity of knowledge is constitutively tied to our capacities of providing justifications. Arguably, Wittgenstein's insights into the limits of our capacity to give reasons and provide justifications show how normativity is both pervasive and more extensive than the practices of justification as actions or occurrences in the ‘space of reasons’. I situate those insights with respect to competing accounts of Wittgenstein's naturalism and recommend a more ‘liberal’ interpretation.

ABSTRACT Supporting youth wellbeing in low carbon ways is a crucial challenge in cities. Seventy percent of youth will live in urban areas by 2050 and urban sites account for 67–72% of the global share of carbon emissions. Young people’s consumption behaviour including energy use is increasingly identified as a key driver of urban emissions. This paper expands beyond dominant individualised approaches to examining urban youth wellbeing and consumption to interrogate the relational contexts in which young people live, their wellbeing aspirations, and the conditions that enable or lock-in lifestyle emissions. Applying a relational lens and thematic analysis to focus group data collected from 332 youth aged 12–24 years in seven cities of the global South and North, the paper examines experiences shaping youth wellbeing in the context of urban consumption activities. Findings emphasised the complexities of “linked lives”, foregrounding family, peer and community relationships as critical in shaping youth wellbeing and consumption. Home was highlighted as a significant relational context, where family relationships impact wellbeing and energy use, through connection, comfort, conflict and compromise. Public space was also valued, but findings highlighted issues of identity and inequality that impact access. Findings also underscored the significance of beyond-human relationships. This cross-cultural research highlights underacknowledged complexities in youth wellbeing and consumption activities. Discussion proposes ways local government can adopt relational perspectives to advance climate resilient urban development, including cultivating meaningful relationships with youth and prioritising secure housing, access to green space, and care and integration of nature within urban landscapes.

The article analyzes the poetic images contained in the wartime works of Maria Pawlikowska-Jasnorzewska, through which the lyrical persona returns home to the space of human and non-human nature. The safe home is embodied in the memory by turning to the natural details associated with Krakow. The author focuses on aquatic and terrestrial imagery, which not only reminds the lyrical persona of the natural and cultural landscape of his hometown, but at the same time allows this poetry to be treated as an exercise to search for hope.

Abstract In the face of the dominant constructivist approach in contemporary learning theories, the naturalization of learning should be identified at a more fundamental level than its mere reduction to a biological phenomenon. It should be identified in the pervasive tendency to dispense with the experience the learners make about their own knowing. The trouble in the naturalization of learning can more clearly be realized by the concept of “space of nature/ reason.” The learning process includes bridging between both spaces; such bridging remains disregarded by reducing the learning to the event solely played in the space of nature. Following Buck’s argumentation, we can recognize an experience of a twofold leap from “nature” to “reason” in the procedural structure of learning. The limits of naturalization of learning are demarcated by the genuine condition of learning as experience.

Theater as a place, but also as a field of human and team activity involving the creation of performances performed in the presence of the viewer, has a centuries-old history. This study aims at examining the links between theatre architecture/space and public spaces, trying to answer to what extent these objects have become attractors in its space and how they affect the activity of cultural and social life. The subjects of the study are Warsaw theatres, both historical and contemporary, in the context of their impact on the surrounding public spaces. A specific methodology was elaborated to evaluate potential impacts. According to the spatial relations between the theatre and its surroundings, they are clustered in the following typologies: emanation, isolation, and interference theatre. The research methods applied for defining and solving the scientific problem are: (i) critical analysis, (ii) comparative analysis, (iii) observation without intervention, and (iv) intuitive method based on the author’s personal experience. The conclusions are based on empirical research, with particular emphasis on the research material obtained by field research. The results of the research allow one to draw conclusions regarding the influence of theatrical places on public spaces in the city structure. The mission of the theater is changed, activating events and building social bonds. Theater space and its surroundings are shaped in accordance with these new standards and social expectations to be transformed into a public space of a cultural nature. Thus, presently, urban theatrical space is a site for spectacle, with a social and cultural mission. Theater space and its surroundings should be shaped in accordance with changing standards and social expectations, and it should be a public space of a cultural nature.

In recent years, the field of ecogothic criticism has provided new and generative ways of thinking about interactions between nature and the Gothic within literary works. Though scholars have frequently analyzed elements of the Gothic and depictions of nature within Welty's work, the field of ecogothic criticism provides a new way for approaching the intersection of these elements. In this essay, I draw upon ecogothic understandings of time and space to offer a new reading of Welty's "Moon Lake." Ecogothic space refers primarily to human enmeshment in the environment and inseparability from the rest of nature; ecogothic time refers to humanity's long past, connecting us through evolution to animals and plants. In "Moon Lake," Welty depicts the campers' evolutionary relationship to the world around them by drawing attention to her characters' animal- and plant-like qualities and challenging their understandings of the human/nonhuman boundary. This reading has consequences beyond the human/nonhuman relationship: by placing all her characters—White and Black, wealthy and poor—within the long history of evolutionary time and the encroaching space of inescapable nature, Welty reveals the artificiality of human-constructed hierarchies and binaries based on class and race.

<em>The purpose of this research is to describe the spatial aspects of the spatial conceptualization generated by the dominant metaphors found in Acehnese society both related to Acehnese culture and nature. The author uses Lakoff and Johnson's (1980) cognitive semantic conceptual study which is clarified by Cruse & Croft (2004) and Saeed (2009) in describing and analyzing the data. The concept of space is generated which refers to the container (container) and place (space). Container space includes: (1) inside-out concept, (2) full-empty concept, and (3) content concept. Space includes: (1) up-down concept, (2) center-periphery concept, and left-right image concept. the spatial conceptualization generated by the dominant metaphor found in Acehnese society is divided into three main spaces; seuramoe keue (front porch), rumoh inoeng (tungai porch), and seuramoe likoet (back porch) space related to the container (container) is categorized as the concept of container space in Acehnese houses, while the conceptualization of space related to place is categorized as the concept of space in aceh nature. The metaphor of open space in this element includes the entire open space of open nature in all activities. while the conceptualization of space related to place is categorized as the concept of space in Aceh's realm. The metaphor of open space in this element includes the entire open space of open nature in all activities. while the conceptualization of space related to place is categorized as the concept of space in Aceh's realm. The metaphor of open space in this element includes the entire open space of open nature in all activities.</em>

Over the past decade, China’s centralized politics have explored new resources to tame the sustainability question and hinder the possibility for narratives of crisis to institutionalize foci of social and territorial malaise. The party-state rhetoric has focused its attention on inverse discourses of future environmental civilization whereas the current conjuncture shapes the local greenspace as a problem space. The analysis of environmental crisis discourses in Chongqing reveals the conundrum of redefining the commons in transitional times characterized by practices of redenomination of nature reserves and green objectifying high-end real estate advertisement. It points out how the crisis is turned into an opportunity for further uneven development through a process of emplacement on the basis of individualized forms of environmental protection. On the other hand, the digital makes space for alternative narratives of awareness which evoke a sense of social responsibility to understand the territorial changes and avoid a complete de-politicization of local communities on the governance of commons. The essay reveals how the state of tension within the eco-commodity production and circulation is linked to discourses of emotional proximity to the landscape.

The aim of the study is to generalize the theoretical and applied aspects of the formation of an ideological space of a unified nature as a reflexive reaction of business to socioeconomic realities in conditions of constructive destabilization. Based on the carried out analysis of statistical data, it is proved that a fundamentally new direction comes into being for domestic economic science, i. e., studies of business behavior for the faster recovery of the country’s economy, which requires the formalization of adequate instruments of a modern manager. Analyzing, systematizing and generalizing the scientific works of many scholars, the views of researchers on the definition of the concept of «ideology» were systematized, the principles of business ideology were allocated, the goal, types, signs, functions, principles, methods of ideological influence within the framework of building the ideology of management were defined. The presented publication forms theoretical and applied aspects of the ideological space of a unified nature as a reflexive reaction of business to socioeconomic realities. The issue of reflection as a system of reactions to socioeconomic realities is examined. The article considers the forms of reflection, the objective etiology of the formation of spheres of reflection through the prism of multidisciplinary connections. It is proved that the forms of reflection as a system of business reaction to socioeconomic realities in conditions of constructive destabilization have a tactical and strategic result. For a clear understanding and detailed analysis of the behavior of the problem under study, a block diagram of causal relationships is built. It is proved that reflection is an instrument for influencing the development of emotional intelligence, which explains the nature of the analytical choice of an alternative solution to the subject of economic relations and determines the possibilities of consolidated external information influence on this choice. Of practical importance is the universal model of the cognitive map of the behavioral model of business structures, which allows to explain the multi-vector format of development in rational, limited rational and irrational dimensions, combining the features of the model of constructive development of the destabilizing format and crisis phenomena

Art and Space: Heidegger and Merleau-Ponty Although Heidegger’s and Merleau-Ponty’s discussion of the problem of art and space leads in part to comparable results, the differences between the two phenomenological approaches should also be pointed out. As such a difference the relationship between the space of art (and craft) and the space of nature is first brought into view – as described by Heidegger in §§ 22 – 24 of <italic>Being and Time</italic> (1927) and by Merleau-Ponty in §§ 29 – 33 of his second fundamental work <italic>Phenomenology of Perception</italic> (1945). More concrete studies of space and art can be found in later texts by the two philosophers. For this comparison Merleau-Ponty’s essays “Cézanne’s Doubt” (1945), “Indirect Language and the Voices of Silence” (1952) and in particular “Eye and Mind” (1961) as well as Heidegger’s texts “Building Dwelling Thinking” (1951) “Remarks on Art – Sculpture – Space” (1964, published 1996 in German: “Bemerkungen zu Kunst – Plastik – Raum”) and “Art and Space” (1969) are regarded.

This paper analyses the construction of space as depicted in Olga Tokarczuk’s novel Empuzjon. The novel is set in the autumn of 1913 in the spa town of Gërbersdorf located in the Sudetes. The town, with a spahouse at its centre, is situated in a valley surrounded by forested hillsides. This location encloses the space, unlike the surrounding mountainous landscape. This contrast can be reflected by the oppositions of “civilisation–nature” and “masculine–feminine” (where the space of nature is feminine and “wild/primal”, while the world of the town is dominated by the masculine element). From the biographical perspective of thema in character, the androgynous Mieczyslaw Wojnicz, the vertical axisof the world plays an important role. His development proceeds from the memories of trips to the basement during his childhood to the atticin the guesthouse in Gërbersdorf.

Reviewed by: Watsuji on Nature: Japanese Philosophy in the Wake of Heidegger by David W. Johnson Steve Bein (bio) Watsuji on Nature: Japanese Philosophy in the Wake of Heidegger. By David W. Johnson. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2019. Pp. viii + 256. Paperback $34.95, ISBN 978-0-8101-4046-2. There is a certain irony in Japan's foremost secular philosopher grounding his ontology and ethics in a term so infamously unclear as fūdo 風土, given that the Japanese word for philosophy itself (tetsugaku 哲学) denotes "clear thinking." One might make the case that Watsuji's concept of fūdo cannot but be unclear, since he is responding to Heidegger's Being and Time, which is hardly the model of lucid philosophy. That said, it is the philosopher's responsibility to clarify the unclear, and that is the task David W. Johnson has appointed himself in Watsuji on Nature: Japanese Philosophy in the Wake of Heidegger. It is a daunting charge, and Johnson does an admirable job of what those outside academic philosophy might call splitting hairs, and what those of us who study Japanese philosophy will appreciate as a long-awaited exploration of this central term of Watsujian thought. The book comprises eight short but jam-packed chapters, the first of which presents an overview of the key concepts and terminology. Most important of these is fūdo, which Johnson sums up succinctly as "a geocultural environment, which we both open up and belong to," a concept that "overcomes the duality of nature and culture and returns us to a richer, premodern conception of experience." (pp. 3, 16). Fūdo is Watsuji's response to Heidegger's Dasein and being-toward-death. Watsuji deems these as being too focused on the temporal aspect of human existence, with not enough attention paid to the spatial aspect of our being. Hand in hand with fūdo is fūdosei 風土性, which Johnson describes as "nature as it is lived through" and "a fūdo as it is encountered in experience, as a part of the world" (pp. 6, 13). A third key term is aidagara, which Johnson translates nicely as "being-in-relationship-to-others." These three, coupled with ningen (the ordinary Japanese word for human being(s), which Watsuji expounds upon in great depth in his Ethics), contain volumes: they capture Watsuji's account of the human condition, time, space, nature, culture, history, metaethics, ethics, and political philosophy. [End Page 1] Importantly, they also show--as Johnson rightly argues--that Watsuji is not committed to the facile climatological determinism that his early interpreters read him to be defending in the later chapters of his 1935 book, Climate: A Philosophical Study. In fact, Watsuji's position is a counterargument against such a view, for fūdo is not an external influence on our subjective experience. It is not deterministic, not an objective state to be studied by the natural sciences, but rather a fundamental, irremovable aspect of our subjectivity. Or rather, our intersubjectivity. Johnson says the primary task of his book is "to set out--in full--this vision of the deep unity of human beings with the space of nature they inhabit" (p. 48), and this necessarily includes other people. We discover ourselves not simply in a fūdo, but our being-in-relationship-to-others in that fūdo. This is one of the book's most valuable contributions: a fully developed Watsujian account of how human beings understand each other via aidagara as it takes place in a fūdo. Here we find not Watsuji's account, but rather Johnson's, using Watsuji's thought as a springboard. Watsuji works in broad, sweeping, often fascinating ideas, but rarely in real depth. Johnson, on the other hand, has a gift for painstaking focus on the minutiae, identifying subtle differences that might otherwise pass unnoticed. At times this makes for difficult reading--he can devote paragraphs to distinctions so fine they are nearly indiscernible--but it also discloses penetrating new insights. Chief among them is his account of Watsujian intersubjectivity. Johnson identifies two ways in which ningen is a "social self." The first is well-trodden ground: every individual is a member...

The geographical environment and a person are in complex, contradictory, diverse relationships, where a person appears as a motivated social being, whose decisions and actions are mediated by the specifics of the spatial environment, the values of the social group, and the needs of the individual. Ecological civilization is a multi-valued concept with an intuitively perceived, but not scientifically formalized meaning, which in recent decades has received ideological and political predestination and practical implementation in Chinese transcription. In a linear perspective, the vector of progressive civilizational movement was designated in this way: from the primitive barbarism of the appropriating economy to the emergence of technology and language, from natural “getting used to” in the space of nature to an ever-decreasing dependence on natural conditions and biological resources to the auetoposis assertion of human life. For the practical implementation of the civilizational approach, some results of the use of a geographical algorithm for assessing wildlife in Russia are proposed. Wildlife is a special image, a philosophical concept, a fundamental idea, a geographical image, a practical constructivist paradigm, practically unknown to the scientific community of Russia. Quantitative information is given on the degree of conservation of wildlife, the maps show the dichotomy, the existence of cultural landscapes and urbanized territories and natural geosystems for the entire territory of Russia. The geographic contours of natural ecosystems in the physical-geographical countries and ecological-landscape macro-regions of Russia are shown.

Trends related to the development of digital technologies and their impact on the social and humanitarian sphere continue to be relevant. The emergence of digital networks not only leads to the expansion of social connections, but also forms the trend of transformation of digital networks into augmented reality, which displaces the living space of nature from the lives of young generations. Deepening of the transformations carries certain risks, since it becomes a source of generating cyber reality, an environment of unpredictable communications. It escapes attention that techno-networks, created initially for the transmission of formalized information flows, are beginning to be mastered by a person for a new type of resources as a space of intersubjective communication. As a result, due to the lack of the necessary cultural field, a qualitatively different, surrogate interaction develops. Under these conditions, the simplest communication models are implemented, based solely on the personal psychological experience of each of the participants, who hide in the digital world from the complexities of real life. For a modern person, the web becomes a space of illusory openness, a zone of serious risks and qualitative changes. The article examines how quickly each member of society gets involved in the new, digital format of interaction and hi-tech communications, and how this practice determines the person’s perception of the world, their cognitive activity. Essentially, it is necessary to clarify how the “web” or “net” space has created the prospects for the development of a real person, carrying a natural potential, and how high the psychological risks of imprinting, suggestive suppression of creative forces in the new topos of communications are. It is also important to raise the issue of formulating expert assessments of the development of networks for humans. Is it possible to consider today’s issues as a natural stage in overcoming the problems of self-realization of a person’s creative potential, or is this due to the fact that in a digital network a person develops not as an autopoetic integrity, but as a being partially prosthetic in audio-video format? Such specific activity impose restrictions on the process of cognition of the world by a person, on their worldview, and affect their independence and behavior. It is important to understand whether a human-sized network adequate to the person’s complexity is possible, and how the modern social environment, human culture, can be enriched with the network potential, new communications.

The history and geography of intellectual neglect of Marxism are the history and geography of Marxism itself. Scholars of different political persuasions and from different regions of the world, including some ‘Marxists’, have pointed to its various deficiencies ever since its origin. But is Marxism really as bad as it is made out to be? In this short article, I argue that it absolutely is not. I discuss my view of Marxism, including Marxist geography. The latter examines economy, politics, culture and nature/body from the vantage-point of space, place, scale and human transformation of nature. I also discuss what difference Marxism has made to my own agenda of abstract and concrete research. For me, Marxism fundamentally comprises ideas of Marx and Engels, and revolutionary Marxist socialists of the 20th century (Lenin, Luxemburg and Trotsky), and those who have critically developed their thinking. I discuss four major areas of Marxism: philosophy (dialectical and materialist views of society and nature), social theory, or historical materialism, (geographical) political economy, and theory of communist practice. Marxism treats class, including in its capitalist form, as the causally most important social relation which explains how human beings live their lives. Class relations, and capitalism, structure gender and racial oppression which in turn influence class relations at a concrete level, and which are behind the geographical organization of society. The main goal of Marxism is not to produce ideas for the sake of ideas. It is rather to arm the exploited masses with adequate ideas that describe, explain and critique the world from their standpoint, so they can engage in the fight to produce an alternative social-spatial arrangement, i.e. a democratic and classless society which is ecologically healthier and which avoids geographically uneven development intra-nationally and internationally.

According to the Bible, Eternal Nature, the dark abyss, and the changeable Nature constitute the Infinite Cosmos (Genesis 1:1). Eternal Nature consists of the Perfect Creative Substance and the water element. The perfect Creative Substance conquers the dark abyss, revitalizing the water element. The perfect Creation Substance expands the space of the variable Nature in Infinite Space. The perfect Creative Substance is called God. God is a good basis for harmony. He works for the benefit of the Harmony of the changeable Nature. God created a hierarchy of angels and man in a spiritual image and likeness. God has armies of bright angels. People are taller than angels. "Jesus answered them: Is it not written in your law: I said, you are gods (John 10:34). I said, you are gods, and the sons of the Most High are all of you (Psalm 81:6). " The arguments of the highest dignity of man before angels are: the embodiment of the Son of God into human nature; He made his son the heir to everything through which he created forever; The son sat on the Odessa throne of greatness at an altitude; about man it is said that he was created in the image and likeness of God (Genesis 1, 26). Man is capable of creativity, and the most diverse, and needlework, and intellectual, and musical, and poetic, which is related to him with the First Form - God, the Creator. I betrayed my heart in order to examine and experience wisdom everything that is done under heaven: this difficult occupation God gave the sons of men to exercise in him (Ecclesiastes 1:13). The works of the Lord are great; they are eager for all who love them (Psalm 110:2). After the general resurrection, the Creator will form a creative human society for cosmological service. For to the man who is good before him, he gives wisdom and knowledge and joy (Ecclesiastes 2:26).

Whitehead and the Pittsburgh School: Preempting the Problem of Intentionality

The purpose of the research is to study the state of the problem of the usage of psychoactive substances in the institutions of primary health care of Ukraine and in other countries all over the world. The following theoretical methods of the research were used to solve the tasks formulated in the article: a categorical method, structural and functional methods, the methods of the analysis, systematization, modeling, generalization. Also in our research we used empirical methods, such as the observation, the interview, a questionnaire, testing, the method of expert assessments. The results of the research. The urgency of the provision of comprehensive primary health care to those who use psychoactive substances is in line with the strategic task of preserving and improving the health of Ukrainian citizens. The problem of the usage of psychoactive substances among the population of different countries, in particular in Ukraine, is one of the most important medical and social issues of nowadays. At the beginning of 2016, 1.7 million of people in Ukraine who were in need of psychiatric and narcological care had been registered in the health care system. It is almost 4% of the total population of the country. In the structure of mental disorders in 2015, the most common mental and behavioral disorders due to the use of psychoactive substances (alcohol, narcotic substances), representing 58.41% of all reported cases. There were 8.9% of health disorders which are related to stress, neurotic and somatoform disorders, there were 1.8% mood disorders. Among persons with a pathology of the psyche and behavior there were registered in 2015, there had been 62.7% of people of working age. In 2020 there were 1.9 million of people in Ukraine who were in need of psychiatric and narcological care had been registered in the health care system. There were 10.1% of health disorders which are related to stress, neurotic and somatoform disorders, there were 2.3% mood disorders. Our own researches data for 2020 also indicate a high level of PS usage among young people: on average, 86.1% of pupils used any alcohol drink at least once in their lives. In the age of 17 this figure is 79.4%, and at 16–17 years old it is approaching 88%. Conclusions. We explain these results having been obtained by us by COVID-19 pandemic in the whole world. In Ukraine people began to use more psychoactive substances. Let’s try to explain this logic with the help of psychological frames. It should be noted that the rich phenomenology of ecopsychological expeditions and the small number of scientific researches of the mental state of individuals during the COVID-19 pandemic allowed us to identify some phenomena of Environmental Psychology categorically and, for the first time, although to determine well-known scientific concepts which have been used. It should be noted at once that under the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic human behavior acquires a sufficiently explicit eco-attribution. Eco-attribution (from the Greek oikos – the environment and from Latin – attribuo – to give, to provide) is a lifestyle that provides the primary importance of the environment, the natural expediency of caring for nature, a kind of harmony of a man and a nature, as well as the world around us. Eco-attribution or eco-attributive behavior presupposes the understanding not only of well-balanced harmonizations in the space of nature, but also in the living environment in general, as well as adequate inclusion of human activity in the environment, performance of its activities, on the one hand, in accordance with the laws of nature taking into account the conditions of existence in the society, taking into account the pandemic COVID-19 and working out its own style of the behavior, which is natural and viable under such conditions. Eco-attributive behavior and the activity involve the search for adequate forms and principles, especially for biological adaptation and protection in changes of living conditions. As we predicted, the characteristic features of eco-psychological stress, manifested in the person’s desire to change the situation, significantly changes the very behavior and activities of people. Personal content, which is now formed in the case of absence of practical experience and practical skills of adaptation to such experiences and actions, forms, as it turned out, not flexible behavior. The basis of such behavior was rigid, torpedo mental states, pandemic or «covid» accentuations, anxiety and fear.

Abstract Early Heidegger argues that a “homogenous space of nature” can be revealed by stripping away the intelligibility of Dasein's everyday world, a process he calls “deworlding.” Given this, some interpreters have suggested that Heidegger, despite not having worked out the details himself, is also committed to a notion of deworlded time. Such a “natural time” would amount to an endogenous sequentiality in which events are ordered independently of Dasein and the stand it takes on its being. I show that Heidegger was indeed committed to such a temporal realism even though his treatment of these issues is somewhat scattered and pulled in different directions. In the course of my reconstruction, I renew an interpretation of Heidegger that stresses Dasein's thrownness into nature and I answer William Blattner's powerful interpretation of Heidegger as a failed temporal idealist who was unable to derive the sequentiality of ordinary time from Dasein's non‐sequential originary temporality. Heidegger did not attempt to derive sequentiality; instead, he understood it as a built‐in feature of the natural universe by which Dasein's activities are constrained. World‐time turns out to be a co‐production of Dasein's non‐sequential originary temporality and the endogenous sequentiality of events in nature.

Corijn van Mazijk’s book is a critical exploration of the relations between Immanuel Kant’s, Edmund Husserl’s, and John McDowell’s transcendental philosophies. His primary aim is not to conduct a historical study, but “to show that history provides us with viable alternatives to McDowell’s theory of our perceptual access to reality.” The book covers a variety of McDowellian themes: the Myth of the Given, the space of reasons vs. the space of nature, conceptualism, disjunctivism, naturalism, and realism—uncovering the roots of McDowell’s views and providing Kantian and Husserlian correctives where needed.