Space Law Research Articles (Page 1)

The United Nations (UN) developed five multilateral space law treaties in the 1960s and 1970s as access to space, space exploration, and space exploitation were beginning to develop. Now, fifty years later, the principles of these treaties still influence space activities for all states. The author of this article contends that the treaties can be used as a ‘guide’ and ‘foundation’ for developing domestic legislation. The treaties promulgate important principles for the exploration and use of outer space, which have likely attained the status of customary international law. Particularly for orbital rocketry, this is a developing type of activity for Canada, as no orbital launch has ever occurred from Canada, and presents a new opportunity to regulate and govern effectively. The treaties contain aspects for legislative drafters, policy analysts, and politicians to consider when developing domestic space governing legislative schemes. A Canadian approach could serve as a model for other nations considering developing national space legislation.

The patterns produced during periodic deposition of a precipitate in a test tube, formed during a suitable chemical reaction under a non-equilibrium regime, are known as Liesegang bands or patterns. Periodicity of a Liesegang system is confirmed by establishing generic laws, including spacing, width, time, and Matalon-Packter (MP) laws. These generalizations are based on determining the precise location of the bands, which is a challenge in itself, despite the advent of recent image analysis techniques. This study demonstrates that the fractal dimension (FD) of each formed band varies from that of others and can be modeled without explicitly identifying the band location. The FD can account for the interband spacing and widths and could serve as a universal parameter for characterizing the Liesegang banding pattern. In this study, since FD is a property associated with individual bands, unlike other generic laws, it can serve as a link to understand nucleation, morphology, and materials science via reaction-diffusion processes. Fractal dimensions were determined using image analysis, and triangulation was found to be a suitable method for evaluating fractal dimensions in the considered Liesegang systems. We also assessed the FD from images of a pure gel, water, and the spaces between two successive bands as baseline values. It was observed that the FD values for each band relate to the process of aggregation or crystallization of the reaction products deposited as a band.

ABSTRACT This article examines what is known at this stage, before the envisaged publication of the legislative proposal by the European Commission in March/April 2025, about the European Union's Space Act, focusing on its potential application to non‐EU operators. It explores the legal and practical challenges of extending EU regulations to space activities conducted by operators from outside the EU. The analysis reveals significant concerns regarding potential conflicts with international space law and compliance with international trade agreements. Key issues include defining ‘services provided in the EU’ for the various types of space activities, potential regulatory conflicts with non‐EU states' laws and the risk of creating market barriers. The article also highlights the tension between the EU's ambition to shape global space regulatory standards and the legal constraints it faces. Ultimately, it underscores the need for careful consideration of how the EU Space Act can be applied to non‐EU operators while adhering to international law and without hampering market competition.

As Earth’s resources are diminishing and concerns about sustainable growth are rising, humankind is obligated to explore new perimeter for eradication. Space mining[1] represents a life-changing perimeter in resource extraction, contributing the potential to reform industries by providing connection to bountiful outer-space resources. These perimeters attract with promises of indescribable riches in precious metals, rare – elements and even water. Space mining, once referred as speculative fiction, has emerged as a feasible solution for attestation of resource security and expediting future space exploration. As space exploration and development accelerate, ensuring sustainable practices is crucial for maintaining the outer-space environment and enabling long-term human presence. Likewise, including sustainable lunar development with space mining, represents very crucial advancements in humankind’s exploration, utilization of outer-space resources and it also highlights the regulative system to maintain a desired state without further human interaction, to support long-term human presence in outer-space. This research also investigates the technological, economic, and environmental dimensions of mining celestial bodies, with a particular emphasis on the Moon. The paper, likewise examines the legal and ethical frameworks for developing the governance on outer-space mining activities and for responsible resource management, as it also accelerates the questions of ownership upon outer-space resources. This surrounding complex issues also examines the tension within international law, national interest and private enterprise. As, the international space law has not evolved since the times of cold war between the Soviet Union and the United States[2]. Therefore, in the other hand, it also addresses the environmental costs of expanding humankind's reach into space, this paper proposes a comprehensive framework for appraising the ecological footprint [3]by rocket launches, engaging with the emission from carbon-burning engines and their impact on Earth's atmosphere. This paper aims to analyse mainly upon evolution of space law, addressing space mining and sustainable lunar development[4]. Also, the change in to overall environmental impact from space mining, and is there any need for international authority for cosmic governance.

This study assessed the extent to which existing international governance instruments address nuclear security for space-based nuclear-powered systems. A structured literature review identified the twelve Essential Elements of IAEA Nuclear Security Series No. 20 (NSS-20) as the only internationally endorsed statement of nuclear security objectives. Each element was reformulated to suit the launch, orbital, transit, and end-of-life phases, then mapped against the Outer Space Treaty (1967), the Liability Convention (1972), the Registration Convention (1975), and the Safety Framework for Nuclear Power Source Applications in Outer Space (2009). Clause-by-clause coding produced a 12  4 matrix in which scores of 1, 0.5, or 0 indicated, respectively, full, partial, or no correspondence. The mapping showed strong coverage for State responsibility, liability, and information exchange, partial coverage for risk-informed planning, and little or no coverage for the criminalization of hostile acts, threat assessment, anomaly detection, or sustained assurance. None of the instruments defined nuclear security for space activities. The discussion concluded that the NSS 20 principles were compatible with space law at a fundamental level; however, they presupposed terrestrial conditions, rendering their existing implementation guidance insufficient once a mission entered orbit. The study, therefore, recommends the development of a dedicated Space Nuclear Security Framework that would retain NSS 20 terminology while providing space-specific requirements for the life-cycle protection of nuclear-powered missions.

This article examines the positioning of political parties on the issue of transnational data governance, with a special focus on sovereignist parties, through the case study of Italy. With digital policy being increasingly high on Italy’s political agenda, the country finds itself in a delicate balancing act between guarding itself from external interference, and opening up to global key players in data governance, including international corporate actors. While the literature on Italy’s domestic data governance is relatively well developed, party-specific stances on its external dimension are understudied. Given their sovereignist ideology, it is expected that populist radical right parties prioritise sovereignty-focused stances, with concerns around data security and state control over digital policy. However, the populist radical right government’s flirtation with radical right tech entrepreneur Elon Musk poses a significant research puzzle. Through a qualitative analysis of Italy’s parliamentary debates covering the 12 months prior to the approval of the Space Law in June 2025, this article investigates how the incumbent sovereignist populist radical right positioned itself on digital sovereignty in the context of cross-border data governance, compared to opposition parties occupying different dimensions on the political spectrum. This case study will especially focus on the most prominent topic in current parliamentary debates on external data governance: Italy’s proposed deal with Musk’s SpaceX for the acquisition of Starlink technology.

The increasing reliance on commercial satellite networks during armed conflicts has revealed substantial deficiencies in international space law. The Russia–Ukraine conflict serves as a pivotal case study, wherein Ukraine's utilization of SpaceX's Starlink satellite constellation for military communications obscured the distinction between civilian and military objects. This dual-use characteristic poses challenges to the traditional principles of international law, including state sovereignty over airspace, as delineated by the 1944 Chicago Convention, the freedom of outer space, as established by the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, and the principle of distinction under international humanitarian law. This study employs doctrinal legal analysis to assess whether dual-use satellites should be deemed legitimate military targets and to what extent states are accountable for the actions of private space actors. It contends that existing frameworks inadequately address the militarization risks posed by commercial satellites in low Earth orbit. The study concludes that new normative measures – whether through treaty amendments, interpretive declarations, or soft law instruments – are urgently needed to reconcile the competing principles of state sovereignty, civilian protection, and non-militarization of outer space.

Electron magnetohydrodynamics (EMHD) provides a useful single-fluid model of plasmas across the electron-scales. The heating and acceleration of weakly collisional space plasmas may be described in terms of a scale-by-scale energy cascade of EMHD turbulence. In this paper, for three-dimensional homogeneous and not necessarily isotropic EMHD turbulence, we derive a divergence-free Banerjee–Galtier type [Banerjee and Galtier, J. Physics A: Mathematical and Theoretical, 50, 015501 (2016)] exact, law where the energy cascade rate is expressed as a function of scales. By explicit calculation, it has been shown that the energy cascade rate is not affected by the presence of a uniform background magnetic field B0. Using direct numerical simulations, a Kolmogorov-like energy cascade with a constant flux rate is observed across the electron inertial scale de. However, as expected, for length scales greater than de, the total energy power spectra of k−7/3 is obtained, whereas for scales smaller than de, a k−5/3 spectra is obtained. A similar universal cascade rate is also calculated from the scale-by-scale budget in Fourier space and is found to be equal to the one calculated using the exact law in real space. Finally, quenching the turbulence drive, the relaxation of a fully developed EMHD turbulence is studied using the recently proposed principle of vanishing nonlinear transfers [Banerjee et al., Phys. Rev. E 107, L043201 (2023)], which convincingly shows the existence of a pressure-balanced relaxed state.

The outer space legal acts adopted by the USA and by Luxembourg provide for the rights of natural and juridical persons to use natural resources of celestial bodies. These acts are considered in the context of applicable rules of international law with references to the relevant teachings. General scientific methods of cognition and methods of legal sciences are used. The USA and Luxembourg space legal acts in many aspects correspond to the applicable international law while in some do not. The two States have suggested a new legal approach to the future development of international outer space law that further exacerbates the interstate competition for a more favorable legal environment for private persons to invest in economic activities in outer space. The legal regime of such activities have long been regarded as regulated exclusively on the basis of five general multilateral treaties elaborated within the UN the core of which is the Outer Space Treaty of 1967. The situation has now changed with the separate legal regime of outer space activities promoted by the USA and Luxembourg. Such a “parallel” legal regime while creating a favorable environment for investments by individuals and non-governmental entities in the development of the natural resources of celestial bodies, has at the same time negative legal consequences for the community of States as a whole: the USA and Luxembourg pursue a separate policy aimed at revising the universal international outer space law according to which the exploration and use of celestial bodies are the “province of all mankind”.

ABSTRACT Coal gangue is prone to exothermic oxidation reaction and spontaneous combustion in the process of stockpiling, which constitutes a serious ecological and safety hazard. In order to achieve efficient management of the high-temperature risk of coal gangue dump, this study constructs a multi-physical field coupling numerical model with the coal gangue dump in Daonao Liang, Shanxi Province, as the research object. The model is verified by on-site measured temperature data, and the maximum relative error is no more than 20%. And the influence of the law of heat pipe (HP) insertion depth, spacing, and arrangement on the temperature field was systematically analyzed. The results show that HP can make the coal gangue dump in a short period of time to form a significant cooling core area, with a cooling amplitude of up to 27°C; inserted into the depth of the coal gangue dump closer to the high-temperature core area, the cooling effect is more significant, the deeper the coal gangue heat extraction ability to enhance; smaller spacing (S = 2 m) favors rapid cooling of the coal gangue dump but limited coverage; the S = 3 m arrangement provides an optimal balance between cooling efficiency and space coverage; and the triangular arrangement is more effective than the square arrangement in cooling the high-temperature control area of the coal gangue dump. The research results can provide theoretical support and arrangement strategies for the accurate management of heat-affected coal gangue dump.

Hydrogen energy is pivotal for driving sustainable development and achieving deep decarbonization; yet, its storage remains a significant challenge. Notably, depleted methane reservoirs can serve as a promising large-scale solution for underground hydrogen storage (UHS). Based on adsorption experiments, Monte Carlo and molecular dynamics methods, the adsorption behavior of H2 and CH4 in anthracite and the applicability of five models were discussed. The occurrence space and competitive adsorption law of H2 and residual CH4 in anthracite were analyzed, and the H2 storage law and nanoscale occurrence mechanism of anthracite were revealed to evaluate the feasibility of high-pressure H2 storage in depleted CH4 reservoirs. The results show that the H2 isotherm exhibited a linear trend. The Langmuir model can accurately describe H2 adsorption, and the temperature inhibits H2 uptake. Both D-A and Freundlich models are also capable of precisely fitting CH4 and H2 adsorption, while the BET model shows the poorest performance. The adsorption difference between CH4 and H2 narrows under a high pressure. The isosteric heat of adsorption for H2 is lower than that of CH4, and the depleted reservoir's low methane pressure exhibits minimal impact on high-pressure H2 adsorption. When the H2 molar fraction reaches 0.9, its adsorption capacity exceeds that of CH4, with this difference amplifying under increasing partial pressure, which highlight the potential of high-pressure H2 storage in CH4-depleted reservoirs. Radial distribution function and coordination number analyses reveal that CH4 exhibits a denser distribution around coal molecules compared to H2. However, H2 demonstrates a diffusion coefficient 1 order of magnitude higher than that of CH4, facilitating rapid hydrogen storage. Furthermore, H2 occupies approximately 70% and 30% of the adsorbed and free spaces in coal, respectively, compared to 90% and 10% for CH4. This study is expected to provide scientific guidance for H2 energy storage in depleted coal seams.

‘Sub-orbital activities’ – the application of ‘international law’ in the twilight between air and space law

The article is devoted to a comprehensive study of the legal regime governing intellectual property (IP) rights management in the domain of international space activities, with a particular emphasis on the framework of transnational consortia. It presents an interdisciplinary analysis that integrates legal, institutional-economic, and political dimensions of regulating the circulation of IP objects within cooperative space projects involving both public and private actors. The paper argues that, with the intensification of space commercialization, the growing involvement of non-state participants, and the acceleration of technology transfer, IP rights are acquiring not only a technical-legal character but also a strategic function. It is established that traditional national mechanisms for the protection and enforcement of IP rights are insufficient to address emerging challenges in this field, especially concerning objects created in outer space or within international research and technology initiatives. The author substantiates the need to construct a hybrid legal regime for IP governance that would combine the norms of international space law, national legislation, contractual instruments, public law provisions (notably export control), as well as the internal regulations and policies of consortia. Particular attention is given to the transnational space consortium as a novel form of global governance, distinct from the classical transnational corporation, yet fulfilling functions of coordination, institutionalization, and formalization of joint activities among public and private entities. It is emphasized that the establishment of an effective IP governance regime is contingent upon the institutionalization of ex ante licensing procedures, the creation of internal IP management bodies within consortia, and the development of algorithms for the equitable allocation of rights to the results of joint endeavors. The article also highlights potential risks of fragmentation of the international legal order stemming from the increasing autonomy of transnational consortia and the emergence of semi-autonomous normative regimes. In this context, the necessity of modernizing international space law is underlined, with the aim of ensuring a balance between the interests of private innovative development and the principle of equitable access to outer space.

Due to the growing incursion of new private entities into the space sector, with the available resources and technological capacity to research, propose, develop, launch, and maintain different types of space transportation, and with the vision of a potential growth in the demand for inputs, products, and services required by the different stations, where currently only two have a continuous astronaut habitat. This INCOTERM will be aligned with a legal and logistical vision of extraterrestrial trade, considering the need to adapt international trade rules to the space sector, as well as integrating organizations such as UNOOSA and the Institute of Space Law into consideration as leading regulators. Regarding the vision of a market with continuous exponential growth that will require an INCOTERM applicable to space trade and transportation, a proposal was made for the INCOTERM DCI (Delivered in Cabin), which will integrate the implementation of handling, loading, transport, unloading, delivery and/or activation of merchandise will be integrated with the certainty of responses, solutions and delimiting responsibilities regarding potential latent risks involved in space exploration.

Structural collapses caused by accidents or disasters could create unexpected radiation shielding, resulting in sharp gradients within the radiation field. Traditional radiation mapping methods often fail to accurately capture these complex variations, making the rapid and precise localization of radiation sources a significant challenge in emergency response scenarios. To address this issue, based on standard Gaussian process regression (GPR) models that primarily utilize a single Gaussian kernel to reflect the inverse-square law in free space, a novel multi-kernel Gaussian process regression (MK-GPR) model is proposed for high-fidelity radiation mapping in environments with physical obstructions. MK-GPR integrates two additional kernel functions with adaptive weighting: one models the attenuation characteristics of intervening materials, and the other captures the energy-dependent penetration behavior of radiation. To validate the model, gamma-ray distributions in complex, shielded environments were simulated using GEometry ANd Tracking 4 (Geant4). Compared with conventional methods, including linear interpolation, nearest-neighbor interpolation, and standard GPR, MK-GPR demonstrated substantial improvements in key evaluation metrics, such as MSE, RMSE, and MAE. Notably, the coefficient of determination (R2) increased to 0.937. For practical deployment, the optimized MK-GPR model was deployed to an RK-3588 edge computing platform and integrated into a mobile robot equipped with a NaI(Tl) detector. Field experiments confirmed the system's ability to accurately map radiation fields and localize gamma sources. When combined with SLAM, the system achieved localization errors of 10 cm for single sources and 15 cm for dual sources. These results highlight the potential of the proposed approach as an effective and deployable solution for radiation source investigation in post-disaster environments.

The space sector has become an attractive economic market for states and private entities. With unprecedented technological development, private actors have become major players in the space arena. However, this is not reflected in the legal framework for settling space law disputes under international space law, which is restricted to states. This research provides an analysis of the means of resolving disputes related to space activities available to states and private actors, whether under international law, or the means provided by international courts and arbitration forums, and shows the advantages and disadvantages of each, with a focus on Dubai’s Court of Space as the latest forum dedicated to settling space disputes. This research concludes that, the rapid growth of the space sector underscores the urgent need for effective and inclusive mechanisms to resolve space-related disputes. Existing frameworks are inadequate for the diverse and complex nature of modern space activities, as they often exclude private entities and fail to represent broader stakeholder interests. Dubai’s Court of Space emerges as a promising solution, offering specialized expertise, transparency, and the potential to set valuable precedents for the global space community, making it a compelling option for addressing future space disputes.

IntroductionTandem dual-rotor wind turbines achieve efficient wind energy capture through aerodynamic coupling between upstream and downstream rotors. However, the influence mechanism of rotor spacing on complex flow fields and turbine performance remains unclear.MethodsAiming at this problem, a high-precision computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method was adopted to construct a physical model of dual-rotors with real blade geometry. Using global structural grid meshing and the Transition-SST turbulence model, the flow characteristics of air around the rotors were systematically investigated under six typical spacings ranging from 0.2 D to 2.0 D (D is the diameter of the front rotor).Results and discussionThe study found that as the spacing increases, the power of the front rotor increases logarithmically, while the power of the rear rotor gradually decreases. The total power of the dual-rotors continues to rise, showing different growth rates before and after 0.5 D. Flow field analysis indicates that the wake blockage effect of the front rotor on the rear rotor is significant at small spacings, while the wake velocity recovers more fully and the turbulence mixing effect enhances at large spacings. This research reveals the regulation law of rotor spacing on aerodynamic interference effects, provides key parameter basis for optimizing wind energy capture and designing structural loads of dual-rotor turbines, and fills the research gap on the influence of tandem dual-rotor spacing on flow field characteristics.

As humanity intensifies its efforts to explore outer space, particularly Mars, the associated risks of contaminant transfer between planets—referred to as forward contamination (Earth to Mars) and backward contamination (Mars to Earth)—have emerged as critical concerns for both the scientific and legal communities. These risks not only threaten the ecological integrity of extraterrestrial environments but also pose potential hazards to human health and planetary biospheres. Furthermore, such contamination can compromise the accuracy and credibility of astrobiological research, especially in the search for extraterrestrial life.This paper adopts an interdisciplinary empirical approach, integrating insights from geo-environmental science and international space law, to assess the magnitude, implications, and governance challenges of interplanetary contamination. It begins by reviewing historical and ongoing Mars missions conducted by NASA[1], ESA, ISRO, and private entities like SpaceX, analyzing mission logs and microbial survival studies in space-like conditions. These scientific observations reveal the alarming resilience of certain Earth-origin microbes, highlighting the inadequacies in current sterilization techniques and the lack of uniform biosecurity measures across space agencies.Legally, the paper evaluates the foundational principles enshrined in the Outer Space Treaty (1967), especially Articles I, IX, and VI, which emphasize the need to avoid harmful contamination and ensure responsible conduct in space activities. It critically examines the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) Planetary Protection Policy, which currently serves as a non-binding standard, and contrasts it with national frameworks such as the U.S. Planetary Protection Policy and India's space mission protocols. Despite COSPAR’s efforts to provide guidance, the absence of binding international legislation has led to inconsistent enforcement and fragmented compliance.To empirically assess expert opinion on this issue, the study conducted a risk perception survey involving 50 planetary scientists, astrobiologists, legal scholars, and policy-makers across India, Europe, and the United States. The survey results indicate a strong consensus on the inadequacy of current legal safeguards and the urgent need for a unified, enforceable regime that balances scientific exploration with planetary stewardship. Notably, 86% of respondents supported the establishment of a Global Planetary Protection Authority under the aegis of the United Nations or an independent scientific-legal consortium. The paper also presents a geo-environmental risk model that categorizes contamination threats based on microbial survivability, mission type (orbital, lander, sample-return), and sterilization efficacy. This model is designed to assist in evaluating the probability and severity of forward or backward contamination under varying mission scenarios.In conclusion, the research underscores the pressing need for reform in planetary protection governance. It proposes a multi-tiered approach that includes: (1) amending the Outer Space Treaty to incorporate enforceable contamination control measures; (2) mandating COSPAR guidelines through national legislation; and (3) developing a standardized international protocol for all interplanetary missions. As space exploration enters a new era marked by both scientific ambition and commercial interest, ensuring a legally coherent and scientifically informed planetary protection strategy is vital to safeguard both Earth’s and Mars’s ecosystems for future generations.

The international legal dispute concerning anti-satellite (ASAT) testing and the international legal regime in space activities is analyzed in this article against the backdrop of India's 2019 Mission Shakti test, which generated a high volume of debris in low Earth orbit. The research considers how the provisions in the 1967 Outer Space Treaty authorize and forbid ASAT testing by critically analyzing salient treaty provisions. The research explores significant gaps in Article IV, which allows the production of kinetic ASATs since it does not provide for the employment of WMDs in space, but says nothing regarding conventional weapons platforms. Using textual interpretation, the research reveals how modern understandings of Article IX's "due regard" and "harmful contamination" provisions have developed to possibly encompass activity causing debris generation. To deal with new challenges in the space security governance, this analysis adds to academic knowledge of how current principles in space law can be interpreted and extended.

Corporations are predicted to dominate outer space use and exploration for the foreseeable future. With tentative plans in development for humans to live and work permanently on celestial bodies, what responsibilities will corporations have to observe human rights? It is thought that reform of outer space law is needed to embrace non-state actors to not only delineate their precise legal status but also their rights and responsibilities in outer space. Not only would this pronouncement of rights and responsibilities provide transparency and certainty for corporations but also for ‘humankind’ as business enterprises such as SpaceX, Blue Origin and the Sierra Nevada Corporation endeavour to make the first leap to establish human communities on celestial bodies. This article will consider the extent to which corporations will need to embed human rights due diligence in their activities on celestial bodies and what measures they will need to adopt to assess, mitigate and remediate human rights violations. Scholars’ confusion surrounding the interpretation of due diligence in the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights will be considered with the aim of proposing what standard of conduct will satisfactorily meet the ‘responsibility to protect’ threshold for corporations in outer space.