Southern Route Research Articles

Least-cost pathway models indicate northern human dispersal from Sunda to Sahul

Archaeological records from Australia provide the earliest, indirect evidence for maritime crossings by early modern humans, as the islands to the north-west of the continent (Wallacea) have never been connected to the mainland. Suggested in 1977 by Joseph B. Birdsell, the two main routes from Sunda (mainland Southeast Asia) to Sahul (Australia-New Guinea), still in debate today, are a northern route through Sulawesi with a landing in New Guinea, or a southern route through Bali, Timor and thence landing in northern Australia. Here we construct least-cost pathway models of human dispersal from Sunda to Sahul at 65 ka and 70 ka by extending previous out-of-Africa least-cost models through the digitization of these routes. We recover overwhelming support for a northern route into Sahul, with a landing location on present-day Misool Island. Minimal support is also recovered for the southern route at 70 ka, with a possible crossing to Sahul from eastern Timor. Review of archaeological records on the Wallacean islands crossed by our northern route indicate a dearth of archaeological research in this region. Meanwhile, the comparatively better studied southern islands still lack any archaeological dates comparable to those known for initial occupation in Sunda and Sahul. Based on our model results we suggest Misool Island as the initial landing site for early modern humans on Sahul and recommend a future focus on archaeological fieldwork in the northern Wallacean islands.

Three more leaves of the Sanskrit – Uighur bilingual Dharmaśarīrasūtra in Brāhmī script

Three leaves written in Brāhmī script and kept in the Dunhuang Research Academy turn out to be parts of a bilingual text of Dharmaśarīrasūtra in Sanskrit and Uighur. After analysing several versions of Dharmaśarīrasūtra, it can be inferred that these three fragments belong to the Northern Brāhmī recensions which were circulated along the Northern Silk Road and are different from the Southern Brāhmī recensions popular along the Southern Route, such as the Khotanese version. This paper attempts to transcribe these fragments and make a thorough research on Dharmaśarīrasūtra, taking five relevant Chinese versions into account.

Marine debris pathways across the southern Indian Ocean

The distribution of marine debris both with the open oceans and along coastlines is largely governed by surface currents and thereby dependent upon seasonal circulation patterns and annual variability inherent in the major current systems. The recovery of a satellite-tracked current drifter on a South African beach some 22 months after release off Western Australia was an indicator of the ocean-wide processes operating in the southern Indian Ocean gyre. Using this single drift trajectory in combination with data from other current drifters released along the Western Australian coast between 2008 and 2013, from earlier satellite-tracked drifters and a selection of historical drift bottle returns, drift patterns across the southern Indian Ocean between Western Australia and east Africa were analysed to quantify inter-continental debris transport rates via the South Equatorial Current (northern east-west pathway) and the South Indian Ocean Current (southern west-east pathway). The northern east-west trans-ocean pathway can be considered in three segments: the complex and highly variable Leeuwin Current eddy system in the east, which can retain drifting debris for up to a year, the comparatively uniform westward travel in the South Equatorial Current, and the eddying components in the western boundary current system off southern Africa. A simple Eddy Activity Index is derived here to clearly distinguish the Leeuwin Current eddy region from the South Equatorial Current. The southern route to Australia is simpler via the Agulhas Return Current and the South Indian Ocean Current.

Shoushtary Diba in Sassanid Era: Production, Application and Quality

Since ancient times, Iran has been regarded as a bridge between East and West in terms of special geographical position. Meanwhile, some parts of the land were of particular importance because of their location on the Silk Road and the proximity to the center of government. Shoushtar is one of the ancient regions of Iran, which has been considered by various scholars and researchers from different aspects. In this paper, the historical background of Shoushtar and Diba Shoushtary, which has enjoyed a high economic value in the Sassanid era, has been studied. The aim of this paper is to investigate the historical, geographical, economic and commercial history of Shoushtar and the quality of its Diba, which is located as a geographic area along the southern route of the Silk Road and its most important product has been silk garment, of which the cover the Kaaba, the garments of the kings and rulers have been provided. The main issue of the research is based on this principle, which is the reason of the prosperity and quality of Shoushtari Diba.

MANIFESTATION OF WORLDVIEWS IN TRADITIONAL NARRATIVES: RECONSTRUCTION OF GLOBAL TENDENCIES IN THE SPREAD AND THE CHRONOLOGY OF EMERGENCE OF MYTHOLOGICAL MOTIFS

Data on the areal distribution of motifs extracted from ca 25,000 traditional narratives were computed with the purpose of revealing a chronology of the emergence of particular mythological themes. The statistical processing of this material allowed selection of sets of motifs that probably correspond to the routes of major prehistoric migrations known thanks to archaeology and population genetics. Our conclusions are largely based on the comparison of similar sets of motifs in the Old and New Worlds, the time of the peopling of America and its particular episodes being more or less known (initial peopling by Pacifi c and then by continental Siberian groups). Thanks to the methods applied, the epochal dynamics of the development of mythology were for the fi rst time reconstructed by using systematized data, and not by proceeding from general assumptions. The earliest complex, which is related to the explanation of the mortal nature of man and the loss of the easy life, corresponds to the southern route by which humans of the modern type moved from Africa to the Indo-Pacifi c borderlands of Asia. These motifs are abundant in sub-Saharan Africa, the southern part of Eurasia, Oceania and America (especially South America), but rare in northern Eurasia and the American Arctic and Subarctic. Motifs relating to the origin of man, human anatomy, and relations between the sexes are most typical of the CircumPacifi c world. This theme probably fi rst developed in Southeast Asia among the people who came from Africa, but before the time when their earliest groups reached America. The geographic distribution of motifs relating to cosmogony and cosmology, and to the etiology of natural phenomena, plants, and animals suggests that many of the corresponding motifs initially appeared in southern Eurasia, were then brought to Siberia, and from there brought to the New World (this movement could be explained by the gradual northward displacement of population after the Late Glacial Maximum). The ideas relating to the interpretation of celestial objects were the last to develop. Corresponding motifs are only abundant in Northern Eurasia, from where many of them were brought to North America but not to South America. Interpretations of celestial objects in European cosmonymy mostly date to the Bronze Age, if not to Iron Age technology, while some are related to the spread of world religions.

Carriers of mitochondrial DNA macrohaplogroup L3 basal lineages migrated back to Africa from Asia around 70,000 years ago

BackgroundThe main unequivocal conclusion after three decades of phylogeographic mtDNA studies is the African origin of all extant modern humans. In addition, a southern coastal route has been argued for to explain the Eurasian colonization of these African pioneers. Based on the age of macrohaplogroup L3, from which all maternal Eurasian and the majority of African lineages originated, the out-of-Africa event has been dated around 60-70 kya. On the opposite side, we have proposed a northern route through Central Asia across the Levant for that expansion and, consistent with the fossil record, we have dated it around 125 kya. To help bridge differences between the molecular and fossil record ages, in this article we assess the possibility that mtDNA macrohaplogroup L3 matured in Eurasia and returned to Africa as basal L3 lineages around 70 kya.ResultsThe coalescence ages of all Eurasian (M,N) and African (L3 ) lineages, both around 71 kya, are not significantly different. The oldest M and N Eurasian clades are found in southeastern Asia instead near of Africa as expected by the southern route hypothesis. The split of the Y-chromosome composite DE haplogroup is very similar to the age of mtDNA L3. An Eurasian origin and back migration to Africa has been proposed for the African Y-chromosome haplogroup E. Inside Africa, frequency distributions of maternal L3 and paternal E lineages are positively correlated. This correlation is not fully explained by geographic or ethnic affinities. This correlation rather seems to be the result of a joint and global replacement of the old autochthonous male and female African lineages by the new Eurasian incomers.ConclusionsThese results are congruent with a model proposing an out-of-Africa migration into Asia, following a northern route, of early anatomically modern humans carrying pre-L3 mtDNA lineages around 125 kya, subsequent diversification of pre-L3 into the basal lineages of L3, a return to Africa of Eurasian fully modern humans around 70 kya carrying the basal L3 lineages and the subsequent diversification of Eurasian-remaining L3 lineages into the M and N lineages in the outside-of-Africa context, and a second Eurasian global expansion by 60 kya, most probably, out of southeast Asia. Climatic conditions and the presence of Neanderthals and other hominins might have played significant roles in these human movements. Moreover, recent studies based on ancient DNA and whole-genome sequencing are also compatible with this hypothesis.

An exploratory study on the Northern Sea Route as an alternative shipping passage

ABSTRACTThis qualitative inductive research explores the potential benefits for the Scandinavian economy and ports through the implementation of the Northern Sea Route (NSR) as an alternative for container shipping to the established Southern route through the Suez Canal. To extract expert’s opinions and address these objectives, we utilised in-depth face-to-face semi-structured interviews through purposive sampling in a single case study setting. The analysis of the data demonstrates that the commercialisation of NSR can yield benefits for the Scandinavian economy (e.g. GDP increase, jobs creation) and reveals the benefits of Scandinavian ports (e.g. ECA’s, flexibility, hinterland, etc.) compared to other ports in North West Europe, which potentially grasp the NSR as an opportunity. However, it is highlighted that this can only be achieved if Scandinavian countries are proactive and secure their involvement.

Energy-Saving Potential and an Economic Feasibility Analysis for an Arctic Route between Shanghai and Rotterdam: Case Study from China’s Largest Container Sea Freight Operator

Global warming has significantly reduced summer ice coverage in the Arctic region, providing long-awaited opportunities for the shipping industry to open new routes through a region known for its harsh navigational conditions. If a shortcut between Asia and Europe via the Northern Sea Route (NSR) is adopted, significant energy saving and pollution reduction are possible compared with conventional southern routes. However, opinions in literature differ regarding this shortcut’s economic viability. We present an analysis from the perspective of COSCO, China’s largest container sea freight operator. We perform a cost–benefit analysis under several scenarios considering the following current realities: (1) declining oil prices not seen for decades, even lower than the lowest prices assumed in previous studies; (2) declining Russian NSR tariff as an effort to attract shipping traffic; (3) possible emission control areas along a northern route may require much cleaner energy and thus impact costs not studied in previous models; and (4) the capital cost difference between a hired and a self-owned vessel. Classical case studies of shipping routes between Shanghai and Rotterdam are adopted for comparison. We explain how different factors impact the shipping costs and to what extent can the NSR be economically viable. Occasional usage of NSR (e.g., one time transit) is unlikely to be more profitable given the higher unit transportation cost, but the route could be economically competitive in terms of the total profits earned for continuous usage. A more aggressive scenario which requires ships on the NSR to switch to much cleaner fuel would erode this route’s competitiveness, but extra environmental benefits should be taken into consideration if future carbon emission trading schemes include the shipping industry.

Temporal and Spatial Patterns of Ship Traffic in the Canadian Arctic from 1990 to 2015 + Supplementary Appendix 1: Figs. S1–S7 (See Article Tools)

The limited availability of consistent, longitudinal data sources for marine traffic in Arctic Canada has presented significant challenges for researchers, policy makers, and planners. Temporally and spatially accurate shipping data that reveal historical and current traffic trends are vital to plan safe shipping corridors, develop infrastructure, plan and manage protected areas, and understand the potential environmental and cultural impacts of change, as well as for sovereignty and safety considerations. This study uses a recently developed geospatial database of ship traffic to provide the first synthesized overview of the spatial and temporal variability of different vessel types in Arctic Canada during the 26-year period from 1990 to 2015. This examination shows that, overall, the distance traveled by ships in Arctic Canada nearly tripled (from 364 179 km in 1990 to 918 266 km in 2015), that the largest proportion of ship traffic in the region is from general cargo vessels and government icebreakers (including research ships), and that the fastest growing vessel type by far is pleasure craft (private yachts). Spatial shifts in vessel activity over the last quarter century have favoured areas with active mine sites, as well as the southern route of the Northwest Passage. As a result, some communities, including Baker Lake, Chesterfield Inlet, Pond Inlet, and Cambridge Bay, are experiencing greater increases in ship traffic.

Основные этапы древней истории Японии (материалы к учебному курсу «Археология зарубежной Азии»)

This review of the main publications about the problems of Japanese archaeology (from Paleolithic epoch up to the period of Kofun culture) represents teaching materials for students with specialty in archaeology (within the course «Archaeology of overseas Asia») and with specialty in oriental studies (within the course «History and culture of Japan»). Taking into account the main task of this publication – namely, support for educational process – authors of this review, first of all, engaged most authoritative summarizing editions, because their conceptions and conclusions passed through necessary approbation and were maintained by the greater part of academic community. The main problems under discussion in Japanese archaeology are as follows: chronology of the first inhabitation of Archipelago; classification of the stone implements according technologies of production and ways of usage; early ceramics in the context of Northeast Asian archaeology; the origin of Ainu and their predecessors; beginning of agriculture and development of bronze and iron metallurgy; semantics of dogu and haniva figurines; characteristics of megalithic monuments; attribution of «horse-rider culture»; correlation between ethno-linguistic and archaeological data; using of historical records for interpretation of excavated relics; the routes of ancient migrations etc. As a result, this review of ancient past of Japan obviously demonstrates that so called isolation of insular population had quiet relative character. During thousands and thousands years, islanders came into contacts with bearers of different cultures of Eurasian mainland and island part of it, as well. The result of these permanent cultural exchanges served as foundation for creation of Japanese ethnos. In certain periods the contacts were more intensive along Northern, or Southern routes; the most significant way went through Korean Peninsula. For Siberian archaeologists the matter of special interest is represented by the finds of early ceramics on Honshu and in East Amur area; by analogies between cultures of Archipelago and Maritime regions of Russia (including Sakhalin and Kuril Islands) in Early Iron Age; by similarities between «Old-kurgans’ culture» at Japan and those in Central Asia. In selection of published materials for this review the preference was given to those available for teachers and students in the universities’ libraries or through free Internet access (published mostly in Russian and English as working languages).

Cognitive load during route selection increases reliance on spatial heuristics.

Planning routes from maps involves perceiving the symbolic environment, identifying alternate routes and applying explicit strategies and implicit heuristics to select an option. Two implicit heuristics have received considerable attention, the southern route preference and initial segment strategy. This study tested a prediction from decision-making theory that increasing cognitive load during route planning will increase reliance on these heuristics. In two experiments, participants planned routes while under conditions of minimal (0-back) or high (2-back) working memory load. In Experiment 1, we examined how memory load impacts the southern route heuristic. In Experiment 2, we examined how memory load impacts the initial segment heuristic. Results replicated earlier results demonstrating a southern route preference (Experiment 1) and initial segment strategy (Experiment 2) and further demonstrated that evidence for heuristic reliance is more likely under conditions of concurrent working memory load. Furthermore, the extent to which participants maintained efficient route selection latencies in the 2-back condition predicted the magnitude of this effect. Together, results demonstrate that working memory load increases the application of heuristics during spatial decision making, particularly when participants attempt to maintain quick decisions while managing concurrent task demands.

An early colonisation pathway into northwest Australia 70-60,000 years ago

Colonisation of Sahul 70-60 thousand years ago (kya) represents the first great maritime migration undertaken by anatomically modern humans in one of the final phases of the Out of Africa dispersal. Visual connectivity network analyses, agent-based simulations and ocean current modelling reveal that modern humans could follow numerous northern and southern migration pathways into Sahul. Our results support a southern route out of Africa through South Asia with entry into ISEA through the Banda Arc, culminating in an early colonisation of Sahul on the northwest shelf. Our results show multiple colonisation events through other entry points were also probable, and raise interesting possibilities for complex regional migration and population histories.

Host-specific Dactylogyrus parasites revealing new insights on the historical biogeography of Northwest African and Iberian cyprinid fish

BackgroundHost specificity in parasites represents the extent to which a parasite’s distribution is limited to certain host species. Considering host-specific parasites of primarily freshwater fish (such as gill monogeneans), their biogeographical distribution is essentially influenced by both evolutionary and ecological processes. Due to the limited capacity for historical dispersion in freshwater fish, their specific coevolving parasites may, through historical host-parasite associations, at least partially reveal the historical biogeographical routes (or historical contacts) of host species. We used Dactylogyrus spp., parasites specific to cyprinid fish, to infer potential historical contacts between Northwest African and European and Asian cyprinid faunas. Using phylogenetic reconstruction, we investigated the origin(s) of host-specific Dactylogyrus spp. parasitizing Northwest African and Iberian cyprinid species.ResultsIn accordance with hypotheses on the historical biogeography of two cyprinid lineages in Northwest Africa, Barbini (Luciobarbus) and Torini (Carasobarbus), we demonstrated the multiple origins of Northwest African Dactylogyrus. Dactylogyrus spp. of Carasobarbus spp. originated from Asian cyprinids, while Dactylogyrus spp. of Luciobarbus spp. originated from European cyprinids. This indicates the historical Northern route of Dactylogyrus spp. dispersion to Northwest African Luciobarbus species rather than the Southern route, which is currently widely accepted for Luciobarbus. In addition, both Northwest African cyprinid lineages were also colonized by Dactylogyrus marocanus closely related to Dactylogyrus spp. parasitizing African Labeo spp., which suggests a single host switch from African Labeonini to Northwest African Luciobarbus. We also demonstrated the multiple origins of Dactylogyrus spp. parasitizing Iberian Luciobarbus species. One Iberian Dactylogyrus group was phylogenetically closely related to Dactylogyrus of Moroccan Carasobarbus, while the second was related to Dactylogyrus of Moroccan Luciobarbus.ConclusionsOur study confirms the different origins of two Northwest African cyprinid lineages. It suggests several independent historical contacts between European Iberian Luciobarbus and two lineages of Northwest African cyprinids, these contacts associated with host switches of Dactylogyrus parasites.

Report of high genetic diversity of filarial worm, Wuchereria bancrofti from endemic region of Eastern Maharashtra (India)

Summary “Filariasis free India” is National Health Policy’s vision. Currently, India has undertaken Mass Drug Administration drive (MDA) to eliminate the filariasis infection. Taking this into account, the emergence of new Wuchereria bancrofti resistant strains against the current choice of drugs cannot be ruled out. In this study, we report the genetic diversity of Wuchereria bancrofti from four districts (Amravati, Nagpur, Chandrapur and Wardha) of Vidarbha, a region in the eastern part of Maharashtra state of India and considered a hot spot of filariasis infections. The RAPD profiles were generated for 21 populations using nine random RAPD primers. The RAPD-PCR based distance matrix shows maximum genetic distance of 0.425 between the parasites from Nagpur and Amravati region and minimum genetic distance of 0.210 between the parasites of Wardha and Nagpur. The tree inferred by Neighbour-Joining (NJ) method shows four distinct clusters. With the single exception of isolates from Amravati, all other clusters show the intermingling of isolates with other districts. Further, the representation of isolates from Chandrapur in three out of four clusters revealed to be a founder and indicates towards the entry of the filarial worm into the Maharashtra state through southern route.

A new approach developed to study variability in North African dust transport routes over the Atlantic during 2001–2015

AbstractWe investigated the variability in the North African dust transport routes over the Atlantic (NAD routes) by extracting the dust transport central axis using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer aerosol data for 2001–2015. The results showed that the NAD routes can be classified into two regimes, a southern route centered at the southernmost position of 6.08 ± 1.12°N during November to March and a northern route centered at the northernmost position of 18.21 ± 1.04°N during April to October. In the southern route, large intervariation was correlated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), but the ITCZ and NAO jointly explained only 38% of the variation. In the northern route, the ITCZ alone explained 67% of the intervariation. The extracted trends during 2001–2015 exhibited a northward shift of 1.68° for the southern route and of 0.52° for the northern route. The causes for the shift were also examined.

Archaeological reconnaissance of the Late Pleistocene Red Sea coast in the Danakil

The paucity of archaeological evidence from the northern Afar Rift and Red Sea littoral remains a major hindrance to testing the hypothesised Out-of-Africa dispersal of early humans via the ‘Southern Route’—across the Bab al-Mandeb into Arabia and beyond. Encouraged by renewed geological studies (e.g. Atnafu et al. 2015), and recent archaeological discoveries (e.g. Walter et al. 2000; Beyin 2013), we initiated a pioneering exploration along the ancient Red Sea coast in the Danakil Depression (Figure 1a–c). The most conspicuous geomorphological features here constitute terraces of reef carbonates and associated marine deposits, formed when the depression was covered by the open Red Sea during the Middle to Late Pleistocene. Initial results of our exploration promise contexts in which the distribution and cultural/behavioural adaptation of early humans during the Out-of-Africa event can be closely investigated.

Archaeological reconnaissance of the Late Pleistocene Red Sea coast in the Danakil

The paucity of archaeological evidence from the northern Afar Rift and Red Sea littoral remains a major hindrance to testing the hypothesised Out-of-Africa dispersal of early humans via the ‘Southern Route’—across the Bab al-Mandeb into Arabia and beyond. Encouraged by renewed geological studies (e.g. Atnafu et al. 2015), and recent archaeological discoveries (e.g. Walter et al. 2000; Beyin 2013), we initiated a pioneering exploration along the ancient Red Sea coast in the Danakil Depression (Figure 1a–c). The most conspicuous geomorphological features here constitute terraces of reef carbonates and associated marine deposits, formed when the depression was covered by the open Red Sea during the Middle to Late Pleistocene. Initial results of our exploration promise contexts in which the distribution and cultural/behavioural adaptation of early humans during the Out-of-Africa event can be closely investigated.

The origin of East European Ashkenazim via a southern route

AbstractIn der Literatur werden zwei Populationen als Vorfahren der osteuropäischen Aschkenazim erwähnt: Deutsche Juden und Chasaren. Ein deutscher Ursprung ist demografisch nicht möglich, eine Chasarische Herkunft kann ebenfalls nicht nachgewiesen werden und ist auch nicht plausibel. Der Verfasser schlägt das Denkmodell vor, dass die Vorfahren der osteuropäischen Aschkenazim zunächst um den Kimmerischen Bosporus angekommen sind, vorwiegend aus Anatolien und Südeuropa. Er führt Beweise an, dass es schon vor der Zeitwende eine jüdische Anwesenheit auf der Krim gab, die bis zum 7. Jahrhundert dauerte. Hinzu kamen während des 7. und 8. Jahrhunderts noch Juden aus Byzanz. Diese These wird unterstützt durch genetische Beweise, die einen Unterschied zwischen west- und osteuropäischen Aschkenazim zeigen. Der Verfasser erklärt die Umwandlung von einer Slawisch zu einer Yiddisch sprechenden jüdischen Population mit dem »language-cum-ethnic shift« Modell nach Ehret.

The influence of declining sea ice on shipping activity in the Canadian Arctic

AbstractSignificant attention has focused on the potential for increased shipping activity driven by recently observed declines in Arctic sea ice cover. In this study, we describe the first coupled spatial analysis between shipping activity and sea ice using observations in the Canadian Arctic over the 1990–2015 period. Shipping activity is measured by using known ship locations enhanced with a least cost path algorithm to generate ship tracks and quantified by computing total distance traveled in kilometers. Statistically significant increases in shipping activity are observed in the Hudson Strait (150–500 km traveled yr−1), the Beaufort Sea (40–450 km traveled yr−1), Baffin Bay (50–350 km traveled yr−1), and regions in the southern route of the Northwest Passage (50–250 km traveled yr−1). Increases in shipping activity are significantly correlated with reductions in sea ice concentration (Kendall's tau up to −0.6) in regions of the Beaufort Sea, Western Parry Channel, Western Baffin Bay, and Foxe Basin. Changes in multiyear ice‐dominant regions in the Canadian Arctic were found to be more influential on changes to shipping activity compared to seasonal sea ice regions.

A Top-Down Approach to Evaluating Cross-Border Natural Gas Infrastructure Projects in Europe

There is an ongoing policy debate in Europe about how to select natural gas infrastructure projects for an EU-wide investment support scheme. We contribute to this debate by introducing a model-based project evaluation method that addresses several shortcomings of the current approach and demonstrate its application on a set of shortlisted investment proposals in Central and South Eastern Europe. Importantly, our selection mechanism deals with the complementarity and the substitutability of new pipelines. We find that a small number of projects are sufficient to maximize the net gain in regional welfare, but different baseline assumptions favor different project combinations. We also explore the consequences of Russian gas permanently delivered at the EU border from northern and southern routes that bypass Ukraine and find modest negative welfare effects.