South Caucasus Research Articles

The Strategic Role of Central Asia in a Changing World Order: Resources, Logistics, and Competition

The article examines the key geopolitical factors influencing the competitive geo-economic dynamics in Central Asia, with a particular focus on the roles and political priorities of external actors. Central Asia, with its key geographic position on the Eurasian continent, occupies a strategic position in the foreign policy agendas of Russia and China, driven by both security and economic considerations. The United States, the European Union (EU), and Turkey also maintain substantial engagement in the region. Hence, the article analyzes the policies of these external actors in Central Asia, highlighting how, in the context of an evolving global order, their approaches differ significantly and produce varied effects on the region’s political stability and developmental trajectories. In this context, the study examines how transport and logistics policies affect the foreign policies of Central Asian states and what strategic issues these states are trying to resolve by participating in regional and international transport routes. The article further addresses key aspects related to the region’s long-term geopolitical and geo-economic prospects. It also analyzes the degree of engagement by South Caucasus countries, especially Azerbaijan and Georgia, in Central Asia’s transport and logistics networks, along with the broader infrastructural linkages between the two regions.

Cluster and statistical analysis of spatial earthquake patterns in the South Caucasus region

Cluster and statistical analysis of spatial earthquake patterns in the South Caucasus region

Postawa Rosji, Turcji oraz Iranu wobec III wojny w Górskim Karabachu

The main purpose of this article is to analyse the reactions of Russia, Turkey and Iran (the regional powers that make up the 3+3 platform with the Caucasian Republics) to the Third War in Nagorno-Karabakh. For the purpose of this article, a research hypothesis was developed that neither Russia nor Iran are Armenia’s real allies in the South Caucasus, because after the Third War in Nagorno-Karabakh broke out, both countries decided not to take any steps that would harm the interests of Turkey and Azerbaijan and also strengthen the position of Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan. The article mainly uses content analysis (by looking at the statements made by Russia, Turkey and Iran regarding the actions taken by Azerbaijan on 19 September 2023) and the decision-making method (in determining what factors drove the governments in Moscow, Ankara and Tehran to take certain steps in the face of another flare-up in the conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh).

MILITARY OPERATIONS IN THE SECOND KARABAKH WAR: AZERBAIJAN’S STRATEGY, RUSSIA’S STANCE AND TÜRKİYE’S ROLE

The Second Karabakh War marked a significant turning point in the geopolitics of the South Caucasus, highlighting the evolution of military strategies and the mutual interactions of regional powers. This article analyzes Azerbaijan’s military strategy, Türkiye’s role, and Russia’s stance in the context of the Second Karabakh War. As a result of the war, Azerbaijan re-established its sovereignty over its internationally recognized territories, leading to a new geopolitical reality in the South Caucasus. The article examines the war’s military, diplomatic, and political aspects, evaluating the impact of technology and regional powers in modern conflicts. Additionally, it analyzes Azerbaijan’s strategic planning to restore territorial integrity since the 2000s and explores its effective use of modern warfare tools, including unmanned aerial vehicles and high-precision weapon systems. This success was made possible through tight military cooperation and the highly coordinated implementation of modern military thought. In this process, Türkiye’s active involvement in military training, technical equipment, and strategic consultancy significantly contributed to Azerbaijan’s operational efficiency. On the other hand, Russia sought to maintain a balanced stance during the conflict but ultimately played the role of the primary mediator in ending the war. While Russia did not openly defend Armenia, it emphasized its alliance with Armenia within the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) framework. The Second Karabakh War unfolded with Azerbaijan’s successful military strategy, Türkiye’s support, and Russia’s balanced position. Azerbaijan’s victory reshaped the geopolitical landscape of the South Caucasus and created new realities. This research also examines the war’s military, diplomatic, and political dimensions within a scientific methodology, contributing to the study of modern conflict management, regional power policies, and sovereignty issues within the framework of international law. The article also emphasizes that the Second Karabakh War will have long-term effects on regional security dynamics and that regional alliances and power balances will be reshaped. In this context, Azerbaijan’s victory has created significant opportunities not only in military terms but also diplomatically and economically.

AN UBAID SETTLEMENT IN THE SOUTH CAUCASUS – BÜLÖVKAYA (NAKHCHİVAN, AZERBAIJAN)

The discovery of samples of material culture associated with Mesopotamia in the South Caucasus raised great debate among scholarly community. Some group of scholar’s claim that traces of Mesopotamian cultures in the South Caucasus link to economic and cultural relationship, and whereas others see this spread of Mesopotamian cultures the result of migration. Newly discovered pottery from Bülövkaya provides new insight into the relationship between the South Caucasus and Northern Mesopotamia. Research shows that painted and simple ceramics from the Bülövkaya settlement can be considered a local variant of the Ubaid culture. The results of the study show that the Ubaid tribes moved north and settled in the territory of Nakhchivan in the first half of the 5th millennium. The movement of the Ubaid tribes to the north was associated with the rich deposits of raw materials of the South Caucasus, especially deposits of obsidian and copper, as well as abundant pastures.

First records of two genera Phragmacossia Schawerda, 1924 and Stygia Latreille, [1802] in the South Caucasus (Lepidoptera, Cossidae)

The study provides an update on the Lepidoptera diversity of Armenia, with the first record of two genera Phragmacossia Schawerda, 1924 and Stygia Latreille, [1802] based on 10 male specimens of Phragmacossia territa (Staudinger, 1879) and a single female specimen of Stygia mosulensis Daniel, 1965 collected in Alvank, Syuik Province, Armenia. These are also the first record of this genera in the South Caucasus.

Improving Georgia's energy security through natural gas exports from Iran

Georgia’s energy security is increasingly vulnerable due to its reliance on Russian and Azerbaijani natural gas, exposing it to supply disruptions and geopolitical pressures. Iran, with the world’s second-largest natural gas reserves, offers a viable alternative to diversify Georgia’s energy mix. Despite U.S. and international sanctions on Iran’s energy sector, historical precedents—such as Iran’s emergency gas supply to Georgia in 2006—and innovative gas swap contracts, like the 2024 Turkmenistan deal, highlight the potential for energy cooperation. This article examines the strategic, economic, and diplomatic opportunities for Iran-Georgia collaboration, drawing on global examples of sanctions exemptions and academic literature to propose a framework for Georgia to secure Iranian gas imports legally. By leveraging regional infrastructure, diplomatic engagement, and creative trade mechanisms, Georgia can enhance its energy security, reduce dependence on dominant suppliers, and strengthen bilateral ties with Iran, contributing to regional stability in the South Caucasus.

CƏNUBİ QAFQAZDA AZƏRBAYCAN FAKTORU

Azerbaijan plays a pivotal role in the South Caucasus, serving as a strategic bridge between Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. Its geopolitical significance is driven by vast energy resources, particularly oil and gas, and its key position along major transit routes. Azerbaijan is crucial for regional security and stability, especially in resolving the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. Its foreign policy maintains a delicate balance between regional powers like Russia and Iran while strengthening ties with the West, particularly through NATO and EU partnerships. Azerbaijan actively participates in regional organizations such as the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), enhancing its diplomatic presence. Additionally, projects like the Southern Gas Corridor bolster Europe’s energy security. Through economic initiatives and multilateral cooperation, Azerbaijan continues to shape the geopolitical landscape of the region, positioning itself as a key player in global energy and security affairs.

AZƏRBAYCAN RESPUBLİKASININ ENERJİ LAYİHƏLƏRİNİN (NEFT, QAZ, YAŞIL ENERJİ) ƏMƏKDAŞLIQ VƏ TƏRƏFDAŞLIQ MÜNASİBƏTLƏRİNDƏ ROLU

The article titled “The Role of Energy Projects of the Republic of Azerbaijan (Oil, Gas, Green Energy) in the Development of Cooperation and Partnership Relations” comments on the successful implementation of the new oil strategy founded by the National Leader Heydar Aliyev and the signing of the “Contract of the Century” on September 20, 1994, on the initial oil extraction from the Central Azeri section of the Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli fields in February 2005 and the transportation of the produced oil directly from the Sangachal terminal to world markets via the Baku-Tbilisi- Ceyhan (BTC) pipeline and the Western Export Pipeline (WEP) through the territories of Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkiye, on the realization of the transit, transportation and sale of Azerbaijani gas through the “Baku-Tbilisi-Erzurum” gas pipeline, the great importance of these projects in the economic development of Azerbaijan, and the development of cooperation and partnership relations with world countries. The holding of the 29th session of the Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change - COP29 - in Azerbaijan on November 11-23, 2024, and the implementation of the largest investment projects in the South Caucasus, such as Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan, Baku-Tbilisi- Erzurum, TAP, TANAP, Southern Gas Corridor, and Green Energy, are clear examples of Azerbaijan being a state that speaks its mind in the region and deserves great respect and trust from the international community.

INTERNATIONAL SECURITY AS A DETERMINANT IN THE ACTIVITIES OF THE ORGANIZATION OF TURKIC STATES

The Organization of Turkic States (OTS) has emerged as a significant regional actor, shaping geopolitical and economic dynamics in Eurasia. As the organization expands its scope, international security considerations have become a critical determinant in its activities. This study examines how external security threats, including geopolitical tensions in the South Caucasus, Russia’s assertive influence over post-Soviet Turkic republics, and China’s strategic expansion in Central Asia, impact the security priorities of the OTS. Using a qualitative research methodology that incorporates case study analysis, content analysis, and comparative approaches, this research evaluates the organization's responses to these challenges. Key findings indicate that the OTS has shifted from a primarily cultural and economic cooperation platform to a securityoriented regional organization, prioritizing military collaboration, economic security, and cybersecurity. The Shusha Declaration, joint military exercises, and counterterrorism initiatives demonstrate the OTS’s proactive approach to security threats. Furthermore, cybersecurity cooperation and the transition to a common Turkic alphabet illustrate the organization’s strategic efforts to counter hybrid warfare and information security risks. The study concludes that the OTS’s evolving security framework is essential for maintaining regional stability, enhancing strategic autonomy, and reducing external dependencies. Future trends suggest that the OTS will continue to strengthen its security mechanisms, balancing geopolitical competition while fostering deeper regional integration.

THE STRUGGLE FOR INFLUENCE IN THE SOUTH CAUCASUS AFTER THE SECOND KARABAKH WAR: AN ANALYSIS OF THE U.S. STRATEGY AGAINST THE GROWING INFLUENCE OF CHINA AND IRAN

The Second Karabakh War in 2020 significantly reshaped the geopolitical landscape of the South Caucasus, triggering a shift in the balance of power and creating new dynamics among regional and global actors. This article examines the evolving influence of major powers in the post-war period, with a particular focus on the United States’ strategic response to the growing presence of China and Iran. The South Caucasus, serving as a critical bridge between Europe and Asia, has become a focal point of geopolitical competition due to its strategic location, energy resources, and key transit routes, such as the Zangezur Corridor. China’s interest in the region is primarily driven by its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), aiming to establish secure, diversified trade routes to reduce dependence on traditional maritime pathways. Concurrently, Iran seeks to maintain its regional influence through economic and political channels, opposing infrastructure projects like the Zangezur Corridor that could marginalize its role in transcontinental trade. The United States has adopted a dual strategy to counter these influences, conceptualized as the "Geoeconomic Disruption Strategy" targeting China’s economic expansion, and the "Military Containment Strategy" aimed at limiting both Iranian and Chinese geopolitical maneuverability. Through strategic partnerships, particularly with Armenia, and military presence in the region, the U.S. seeks to disrupt China’s economic ambitions while enhancing surveillance capabilities over Iran. The article highlights how Washington leverages these strategies to maintain its influence, prevent the consolidation of Sino-Iranian cooperation, and mitigate Russia’s traditional dominance, which has been weakened post-war.

THE INTEREST OF THE MASS MEDIA, PARTICULARLY TELEVISION, IN EDUCATION ISSUES IN THE SOUTH CAUCASUS COUNTRIES (REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES)

THE INTEREST OF THE MASS MEDIA, PARTICULARLY TELEVISION, IN EDUCATION ISSUES IN THE SOUTH CAUCASUS COUNTRIES (REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES)

Modelling the Distributional Effects of the Cost-of-Living Crisis in Turkey and the South Caucasus: A Microsimulation Analysis

Modelling the Distributional Effects of the Cost-of-Living Crisis in Turkey and the South Caucasus: A Microsimulation Analysis

UKRAINE AND TURKMENISTAN: COOPERATION STRATEGY IN NEW GEOPOLITICAL REALITIES

The aim of this study is to explore the potential of interstate cooperation between Ukraine and Turkmenistan as subjects of the global geopolitical system, as well as Ukraine’s opportunities for partnership in new economic projects between the EU and Turkmenistan and other forms of interregional cooperation. Turkmenistan’s contemporary political and economic-geographical position has undergone changes in the context of Russia’s aggression against Ukraine. This is due to several factors, first, economic sanctions against russia have rendered the utilization of russian transit potential in trade relations between China and European countries impossible. As a result, the transit significance of Turkmenistan, the South Caucasus, and the Black Sea region has increased. Second, the new policy of European countries aimed at diversifying energy imports involves establishing supplies from Turkmenistan, which ranks fifth in the world in terms of proven natural gas reserves and may become a crucial source of hydrocarbon supplies. Third, Turkmenistan’s domestic market experiences a significant deficit in various goods and services, which could be exported from Ukraine in the post-war period. A positive factor in Ukrainian-Turkmen relations is the well-developed contractual and legal framework. Cooperation will also be facilitated by Turkmenistan’s de jure status as a neutral state. However, russia’s geopolitical influence in supporting the authoritarian regime in Turkmenistan remains considerable. Central Asia, in general, is a geostrategic region where the interests of major powers intersect. However, China holds particularly strong positions, viewing the region as a source of energy resources, a transit zone for its Belt and Road Initiative, and a large market for trade and investment. The European Union pursues its economic interests in Central Asia through the Global Gateway initiative, which aims to strengthen Trans-Caspian cooperation, including with Turkmenistan. The proposed construction of the Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India gas pipeline will enable Turkmen natural gas to reach the vast market of South Asia. The new strategy for interstate cooperation between Ukraine and Turkmenistan should be based on bilateral agreements and multilateral cooperation frameworks. A key area of collaboration is the import of natural gas from Turkmenistan, which necessitates the completion of the Trans-Caspian gas pipeline. The subsequent segments of the Southern Gas Corridor, passing through Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, and Ukraine, have already been constructed and are operational. Ukraine’s gas transportation system could be utilized for the storage and transit of Turkmen gas to Europe, significantly reducing dependence on Russian energy sources. Due to its strategic location, the South Caucasus and Central Asia region is becoming a crucial transit hub for trade between East and West. Ukraine and Turkmenistan conduct foreign trade activities within the framework of the Trans-Caspian International Transport Route. The southern branch of the Middle Corridor, connecting China with Europe via Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, a ferry crossing over the Caspian Sea, and further through Azerbaijan and Georgia to the Black Sea, is gaining increasing importance. From the Georgian ports of Poti and Batumi, goods can be transported to Ukrainian ports in Odesa and Chornomorsk, as well as to Romanian and Bulgarian ports. In the absence of security threats, the transport corridor through Ukraine remains the shortest route to Central and Northern European countries. In the post-war period, Ukraine should increase the import of mineral fertilizers, cotton, and livestock products from Turkmenistan. Potential Ukrainian exports to Turkmenistan could include a wide range of goods, such as ferrous metals and metal products-particularly pipes for the needs of Turkmenistan’s oil and gas sector-grain, dairy products, foodstuffs, and machinery. Ukrainian companies have experience in constructing bridges, gas compressor stations, and urban infrastructure projects in Turkmenistan, which should continue to be leveraged. Medical resorts could provide healthcare and wellness services to Turkmen citizens. The post-war cooperation strategy between Ukraine and Turkmenistan should also include the educational and scientific sectors. The education of Turkmen students in Ukrainian universities will contribute to the export of democratic values to Turkmenistan. Strengthening cooperation with Turkmenistan should be carried out with consideration for Ukraine’s national interests and contribute to enhancing the country’s geopolitical positioning. Keywords: geostrategic region, foreign economic strategy, gas transit corridor, international transport corridor, Ukraine, Turkmenistan.

"Armenian Issue" In the Caucasus and Anatomy of Ongoing Expansionism

Numerous archival documents and studies show that, as in the South Caucasus, in the lands of Western Asia, where the Armenian community lives, there has never been a problem called the “Armenian issue”. Only since XVIII century this “question” was raised by the ruling circles of Tsarist Russia, supported by the Armenian nationalist-separatist circles. The goal was the desire of tsarism and Armenian nationalist circles to justify the expansionist policy and occupation of the region. There are numerous archival materials related to the beginning of XX century about this. During the entire XIX-XXI centuries, the united Russian-Armenian forces carried out bloody pogroms in the South Caucasus and Western Asia, resorted to terror and deportations to resolve the "Armenian issue". However, the course of events convincingly shows that the future of the region lies in peace, peaceful coexistence and cooperation among the peoples living here.

Бронзовые изделия как отражение этнокультурных связей народов Южного Кавказа в древности

The object of the study are ancient bronze goods discovered in the South Caucasus as a result of archaeological excavations at the sites of ancient settlements and burial grounds of the Bronze and early Iron Ages. Among the various types of bronze jewelry, bracelets were the most numerous and functionally in demand, as they were used simultaneously as decoration and amulets. There is an opinion that they were an equivalent of money and served as a means of commodity-money exchange. In the era of antiquity, in the region, jewelers continued to produce bronze jewelry along with jewelry made of silver and gold. Commonly found jewelry made of silver and gold were compositionally close or identical to bronze jewelry. In the antique layers of the region, bronze jewelry is found in all types of burial grounds. At that time, weapons and tools began to be made of iron. In addition to bracelets, other types of bronze jewelry have been identified – various pendants, rings, neck jewelry, and numerous buckles. The study identifies jewelry that is similar in parameters (technique of execution, metal composition, style of form and decoration), which was found during archaeological excavations located distant from each other. The objective of the study is to conduct the comparative analysis of the identified local artifacts with artifact decorations that are generally similar within the region; to reflect such aspects of these goods as form, type and elements of ornamentation, raw material base of products, which indicate ethnocultural contacts of the population of the region.

GEOPOLITICAL STRUGGLES IN THE GEORGIA-RUSSIA RELATIONSHIP: THE CASE OF ABKHAZIA AND SOUTH OSSETIA

To understand the character of Georgia–Russia relations and the political issues at play, it is essential to analyze the political developments between the two sides, which have not only influenced bilateral relations but also had a broader impact on the entire region. Geopolitical developments, particularly the Ukrainian crisis and the policies of the new U.S. administration, have also had a significant effect on the South Caucasus. The purpose of this article is to investigate the evolution of Georgia–Russia relations (the case of Abkhazia and Ossetia) and explore why, despite Russia's role as one of Georgia's leading economic partners, there has been little political progress. The paper also discusses the key political issues at the heart of Georgia–Russia relations and potential future developments, considering global geopolitical shifts. In the course of writing this scientific work, systematic methods such as historical-comparative analysis, event analysis, and content analysis were employed. Achievements։ The dynamic growth of economic relations between Georgia and Russia under the Georgian Dream government has not resulted in any positive political changes for either party. The continued presence of Russian troops in Georgian territories remains a significant obstacle to improving Georgia–Russia relations, with no resolution in sight. The ongoing divergence of views on the issues of Abkhazia and South Ossetia continues to exacerbate tensions and strain diplomatic relations between the two countries.

Application Prospects of Georgia’s Experience in the Development of Tourism in Azerbaijan

Tourism has emerged as a significant component of national economic growth and cultural diplomacy in the South Caucasus. Among the regional examples, Georgia stands out for its strategic and sustainable development of the tourism sector. This paper examines the key factors behind Georgia’s success and explores how Azerbaijan can adapt and apply similar approaches to enhance its own tourism industry. Through comparative analysis, the study highlights Georgia’s effective infrastructure investment, inclusive policy frameworks, dynamic marketing campaigns, and strong public-private partnerships. Azerbaijan, while possessing rich cultural and natural resources, faces challenges such as infrastructure gaps, policy discontinuity, and limited international visibility. The article proposes targeted solutions including regional development strategies, flexible pricing models, support for local entrepreneurs, and joint Caucasus tourism routes. The research underscores the importance of adapting Georgia’s experience to Azerbaijan’s unique context, with a focus on long-term planning and stakeholder engagement. By learning from Georgia’s tourism trajectory, Azerbaijan has the potential to become a leading regional tourism hub, diversify its economy, and strengthen its global cultural presence.

Study about the Sacral Traditions in the burial customs of the Middle Kura basin inhabitants in the Bronze Age

The study of the spiritual culture of ancient societies is perhaps the most complex and controversial field of archaeology. Sacral objects found in residential places, chapels, other religious buildings, and grave monuments are attributes born from the religious outlook of the inhabitants. Such artifacts are invaluable facts for the study of primitive religious beliefs and rituals. As it is known, the ideas of the ancient people about the surrounding world, their religious outlook, various religious rules, restrictions and regulations that outwardly regulate their lives were concentrated under religious views as a whole. During the Bronze Age, the inhabitants who mastered the vast territories of the South Caucasus, while penetrating the new territories, adapted to the ecological and geographical conditions not only physically, but also from a spiritual point of view. They combined the customs and beliefs of the new territories with their own spiritual world. The reflection of the spiritual world is clearly manifested in the artifacts. It was a set of religious laws, rules and customs that accompanied the life of ancient people, starting from images and symbols with religious-ritual motifs on pottery vessels of various contents and shapes, metal samples, etc., to sacral objects found in grave monuments and places of worship.

Child graves at Galayeri settlement of the Leilatepe culture

In the 1980s, the archaeological culture of the same name was discovered in the Karabakh region of Azerbaijan during excavations of the Chalcolithic settlement of Leilatepe. Since the early 21st century, thanks to the expansion of archaeological explorations, numerous settlements and tombs belonging to the Leilatepe culture have been discovered in the western region of the Republic of Azerbaijan, in Karabakh, Mughan and Gabala, and extensive excavations have been carried out in many of them. It has been established that the Leilatepe culture emerged in the Late Chalcolithic period, end of the 5th millennium BC - beginning of the 4th millennium BC as a result of mass migrations from Eastern Anatolia and Northern Mesopotamia to the South Caucasus. This culture lasted until the mid of the 4th millennium BC. With some exceptions, monuments belonging to this culture were mainly discovered in the territory of Azerbaijan. As a result of continued migrations from the Leilatepe culture area to the North Caucasus, the Maikop culture with the same ceramic traditions was formed there. Among the main indicators of the Leilatepe culture, the use of the potter's wheel in ceramic production and the infant burials in various types of pottery vessels can be especially noted. One of the most extensively excavated monuments belonging to this culture is the Galayeri settlement. The richest finds of the Leilatepe culture were discovered precisely in Galayeri. In all the monuments where extensive excavations were carried out related to this culture, child graves in pottery vessels were discovered. Such graves of the monuments belonging to the Leilatepe culture were mostly found in Galayeri.