South Asian Association For Regional Cooperation Research Articles

South Asia’s worsening air pollution crisis represents one of the most urgent public health and environmental challenges of the 21st century. Nearly two billion people—over one-quarter of the global population—reside in this region, where air quality levels routinely exceed World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines by factors of 10 to 15. This has translated into an unprecedented health burden, with approximately two million premature deaths annually, widespread chronic respiratory and cardiovascular disease, and rising economic losses. According to recent World Bank estimates, welfare losses amount to over 5% of regional GDP, a figure far exceeding the projected costs of coordinated mitigation. Despite this, South Asia continues to lack a binding regional framework capable of addressing its shared airshed. Existing cooperative efforts—such as the Malé Declaration on Control and Prevention of Air Pollution (1998)—have provided a useful platform for dialog and pilot monitoring, but they remain voluntary, under-resourced, and insufficient to manage the transboundary nature of the crisis. National-level programs, including India’s National Clean Air Programme (NCAP), Bangladesh’s National Air Quality Management Plan (NAQMP), and Nepal’s National Air Quality Management Action Plan (AQMAP), demonstrate domestic commitment but are constrained by fragmentation, limited financing, and lack of regional integration. This gap represents the central knowledge and governance challenge that prompted the present commentary. To address it, we propose a dual-track architecture designed to institutionalize binding regional cooperation. Track A would establish a United Nations-anchored South Asian Transboundary Air Pollution Protocol, under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme, the World Health Organization (WHO), and the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP). This protocol would codify legally enforceable emission standards, compliance committees, financial mechanisms, and harmonized monitoring. Track B would establish a South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Prime Ministers’ Council on Air Quality (SPMCAQ) to provide political leadership, align domestic implementation, and authorize rapid responses to cross-border haze events. Lessons from the Indian Ocean Experiment, the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution, and Europe’s Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution demonstrate that legally binding agreements combined with high-level political ownership can achieve durable reductions in pollution despite geopolitical tensions. By situating South Asia within these global precedents, the proposed framework provides a pragmatic, enforceable, and politically resilient pathway to protect health, reduce economic losses, and deliver cleaner air for nearly one-quarter of humanity.

This essay looks at the complicated connection between regionalism and climate change in South Asia, a place with lots of people, weak ecosystems, and a lot of different political systems. It looks at how cooperation (or lack of cooperation) in the area has affected how people have dealt with environmental damage, extreme weather, and managing resources across borders. Even though South Asian countries all care about the environment, they have often had to work on separate national plans because of problems with trust in politics, differences in wealth, and old wars. Regional groups like the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) could be used as places for people to work together to control climate change. This essay takes a critical look at how well these systems work and points out new trends in working together across borders, sharing technology, and climate policy. It says that for South Asia to have sustainable environmental government, regionalism needs to be rekindled and based on ecological interdependence, trust, and multilateral environmental agreements. The study comes to the conclusion that South Asia needs both strong national economies and a shared regional vision based on shared responsibility and coordinated action in order to deal with the climate problem.

Cross-border energy trading activity via interconnection has received much attention in Southern Asia to help the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) region’s energy deficit states. This research article proposed a smart metering system to reduce energy losses and increase distribution sector efficiency. The implementation of smart metering systems in utility management plays a pivotal role in advancing several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), i.e.; SDG (Affordable and Clean Energy), and SDG Climate Action. By enabling real-time monitoring, accurate measurement, and data-driven management of energy resources, smart meters promote efficient consumption, reduce losses, and encourage sustainable behaviors among consumers. The adoption of a smart metering system along with Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats (SWOT) analysis, socio-economic analysis, current challenges, and future prospects was also investigated. Besides the economics of the electrical distribution system, one feeder with non-technical losses of about 16% was selected, and the cost–benefit analysis and cost–benefit ratio was estimated for the SAARC region. The import/export ratio is disturbing in various SAARC grids, and a solution in terms of community microgrids is presented from Pakistan’s perspective as a case study. The proposed work gives a guidelines for SAARC countries to reduce their losses and improve their system functionality. It gives a composite solution across multi-faceted evaluation for the betterment of a large region.

This research delves into the economic performance of SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) countries from 2020 to 2023, a period marked by unprecedented challenges due to the COVID-19 pandemic. With eight diverse economies, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, the SAARC region presents a unique case study in resilience, recovery, and ongoing economic transformation. This study evaluates key indicators such as GDP, GDP growth rates, per capita income, and debt-to-GDP ratios, offering a comparative look at how every nation explored the turbulence of the pandemic and its aftermath. The findings reveal wide disparities in recovery paths. India and Bangladesh emerged as regional leaders, showing strong rebounds fuelled by robust domestic demand, policy reforms, and export-driven strategies. In contrast, tourism-dependent countries like the Maldives and Sri Lanka suffered the deepest setbacks, though the Maldives demonstrated a dramatic recovery in 2021 as travel resumed. Afghanistan’s political instability led to severe economic contractions, while countries like Nepal and Bhutan showed average but steady growth, supported by remittances and targeted investments. The analysis also highlights how per capita GDP and debt ratios shaped the real economic experience for citizens. While some economies rebounded in absolute terms, many individuals continued to face economic hardship due to inflation, weak job markets, or public debt burdens. For instance, Sri Lanka’s debt crisis sharply impacted income levels, and Pakistan faced stagnation despite GDP increases. Policymakers are urged to adopt regionally cooperative approaches, prioritize human development, and implement sound fiscal strategies to ensure long-term resilience and equity across South Asia.

Research background: Existing literature suggests that access to funds is one major hurdle for new businesses and startups. Although many sources seem to provide funds to them, the question is, are they really contributing? Are these sources effectively and actively funding new businesses and startups? Hence, knowing the effective sources will help policymakers and regulators support young entrepreneurs. Purpose of the article: The present study explores the impact of three critical factors-domestic credit to the private sector, commercial bank branches, and foreign direct investment (FDI)-on new business registrations and startups and assesses their contribution to the growth of young entrepreneurship within the context of SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) nations. Methods: The study analyzed data from the World Bank covering eight SAARC nations for 44 years (1980-2023). The study analyses the relationship between the indicators. A cross-sectional dependence test was then performed using Pesaran's, revealing significant dependence among the SAARC countries. To ensure robustness, a panel unit root test (CADF) was conducted to check for stationarity, confirming that all variables are stationary at first difference. The Johansen cointegration test was applied to validate the long-term relationships between the variables. Finally, the study used FMOLS (Fully Modified Ordinary Least Squares) and DOLS (Dynamic Ordinary Least Squares) methods to assess the long-term effects of the variables on new business registrations and startups, with results indicating significant correlations. Findings & Value added: This study reveals that all variables significantly influence new business registration in the SAARC nations, except domestic credit to the private sector (DCPVT) in the case of DOLS. Commercial bank branches have a statistically significant effect on new business and startup registrations. This suggests that established businesses might have greater access to credit than new entrants. FDI, however, was found to be statistically significant but needs further investigation. This study contributes to the existing literature on what is more relevant and effective in financing startups and emphasizes the importance of targeting funding specifically to new businesses and startups. The study suggests that SAARC nations need more effective policies for allocating and monitoring domestic credit to ensure the development of new businesses and startups.

This study examines the relationship between political stability and absence of violence (PSAV), control of corruption (COC), gross domestic product per capita, current account balance (CAB), general government gross debt (GGGD), unemployment, and the KOF Globalization Index within the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) countries from 2000 to 2022. Through panel vector autoregression (PVAR) analysis, the study calculates the long-term correlation between variables using a vector error correction model (VECM). The PVAR approach addresses the endogeneity issue by including endogenous interactions between the variables in the model. Additionally, the impulse response functions and the influence of various variables on certain lags are evaluated. Cointegration between variables was assessed using dynamic ordinary least squares and fully modified ordinary least squares panel analysis to investigate the long-term link further. The results demonstrate a robust cointegration relationship, revealing a shared equilibrium across the SAARC countries’ economic variables. The VECM estimates results for a model with three lags. The coefficients of the cointegrating vector indicate the presence of at least one cointegrated vector between the series. Three of the velocity fit parameters show significance at least at the 5% level, specifically COC, CAB, and GGGD. These non-zero coefficients suggest a causal relationship among the variables in the long-run Granger causality. On the other hand, the matrix β denotes the cointegrate parameter matrix. It is observed that COC, CAB, and GGGD are significant at the 5% level. The equation reveals that COC, CAB, and GGGD variables have a positive, increasing effect on PSAV in the long-term cointegrated parameter values. This suggests that while these variables have a positive relationship with PSAV, their impact is not conclusively significant.

Spectrum of BRCA1/2 pathogenic variants in Southern and Western Asia-a systematic review.

Objective: This study examines India's economic integration with the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC), comparing it with its integration with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). The objectives are to identify the relationship between India's trade with BIMSTEC nations and to analyze trade trends within the bloc. Theoretical Framework: The theoretical framework aligns with the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), focusing on sustainable development through economic, social, and environmental cooperation. Method: The study employs secondary data sources, including government reports and journals, and uses formulas to calculate total trade, trade balance, and share in total trade of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. Results and Discussion: Results indicate that India maintains a significant trade surplus with BIMSTEC nations, particularly Bangladesh and Nepal, and that BIMSTEC offers a more vibrant platform for economic cooperation compared to SAARC and ASEAN. The research highlights the potential for BIMSTEC to contribute to regional prosperity and global sustainable development efforts. Research Implications: Implications suggest that strengthening BIMSTEC could enhance India's economic growth and support the SDGs. Originality: The study's originality lies in its comprehensive comparison and its focus on sustainable development within regional trade blocs.

Natural disasters, population growth, global climate change, and political instability are threatening food security, especially in South Asia. The research study aims to determine the relationship between climate change and food security in South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) countries during the period from 2001 to 2021. The panel data technique is adopted for the empirical analysis because it addresses the time and country effect, providing accurate research findings. The Food Production Index is used as the dependent variable and works as proxy indicator for food security. Pre-estimation tests including, the Breusch-pagan test for heteroscedasticity, the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) for Multicollinearity and Woolridge test for serial autocorrelation, are conducted before panel regression estimation. The model stability is tested by post regression diagnostics of Hansen and Hausman specification test. The empirical results revealed that temperature, rainfall and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita are governing food security. In contrast, population growth has negative effect on food security, demonstrating that South Asia’s burgeoning population hinders progress towards achieving food security . Inflation and land area under cereal cultivation exhibits insignificant influence. The findings showed that both climate-related and non-climate-related variables affect food security. Hence, the development of interdisciplinary and effective food security policies is essential for ensuring social protection and address food security challenges in SAARC countries.

This study explores both the achievements and failures of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) within the socio-political and economic context of South Asia. Established in 1985, SAARC was envisioned as a regional bloc to foster economic collaboration, cultural exchange, and social development among its eight member states—Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Despite nearly four decades of existence, SAARC has struggled to become a strong regional organization akin to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) or the European Union (EU). This research adopts a qualitative methodology, incorporating case studies, expert interviews, and document analysis to provide a nuanced understanding of SAARC’s trajectory. While SAARC has made notable progress in areas such as disaster management, trade agreements, and cultural exchanges, its effectiveness has been constrained by geopolitical tensions—especially between India and Pakistan—economic disparities, and the absence of a robust enforcement mechanism. By drawing comparisons with ASEAN and the EU, this study seeks to analyze SAARC’s challenges and propose recommendations for enhancing its role in regional cooperation.

Foreign direct investment (FDI) is the most important source of funding for South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) countries as it allows them to seize numerous development opportunities. Because of the uncertainty brought by COVID-19, the global economy, including developed and developing countries, has been experiencing some changing trends in FDI in recent years. This investigation aims to find the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on FDI inflows in SAARC countries. The study further analysed the business environments of SAARC countries. The study is descriptive and analytical in nature. Secondary data like World Bank reports and UNCTAD reports are used in the study. The study concludes that pandemic COVID-19 has a negative impact on FDI in SAARC countries except India. However, most of the SAARC countries have shown upward trends in FDI inflows in the post-COVID-19 period. In terms of the business environment, India is regarded as the most advantageous location and favourable destination for foreign investors. While Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan are more attractive countries for FDI inflow.

Purpose The increasing use of fossil fuels and energy security concerns have led to a growing emphasis on sustainable economic growth and transitioning to a green energy system. This study aims to examine the relationship between energy diversification and economic growth in Central Asian Republics (CAR), Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) and South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) from 2005 to 2022. Design/methodology/approach This study examines the relationship between energy diversification and economic growth in CAR, GCC, and SAARC from 2005 to 2022 by using nonlinear panel autoregressive distributed lag and augmented mean group estimating methodologies. Findings The findings demonstrate that with an increase in the long-term diversity of energy sources, developed nations like the GCC and developing nations like Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan from Central Asia and India, Bangladesh and Pakistan from South Asia experience favourable economic growth. However, energy diversification has an inverse relationship with economic growth in least-developed economies like Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan in the short run. Thus, energy diversification bolsters economic growth in developed and developing economies. Diversifying energy sources may yield positive long-term effects, but it is equally important to consider the short-term consequences. Research limitations/implications Diversifying energy sources may yield positive long-term effects, but it is equally important to consider the short-term consequences. Since a variety of energy sources can support environmentally friendly development, this paper presents significant policy implications, advocating for strategic investments in renewable and alternative energy sources such as biofuels to enhance sustainable development. Practical implications The findings demonstrate that with an increase in the long-term diversity of energy sources, developed nations like the GCC and developing nations like Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan from Central Asia and India, Bangladesh and Pakistan from South Asia experience favourable economic growth. However, energy diversification has an inverse relationship with economic growth in least-developed economies like Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan in the short run. Thus, energy diversification bolsters economic growth in developed and developing economies. Diversifying energy sources may yield positive long-term effects, but it is equally important to consider the short-term consequences. Since a variety of energy sources can support environmentally friendly development, this paper presents significant policy implications, advocating for strategic investments in renewable and alternative energy sources such as biofuels to enhance sustainable development. Social implications Since a variety of energy sources can support environmentally friendly development, this paper presents significant policy implications, advocating for strategic investments in renewable and alternative energy sources such as biofuels to enhance sustainable development. Originality/value This study represents the first attempt to examine the nexus between energy diversification and economic growth within the CAR, the GCC and the SAARC. It is critical to recognize that all these regions are significantly dependent on natural resources, specifically oil, gas and agricultural and textile products. These regions face challenges in diversifying their economies away from traditional sectors towards a more diversified economic base. Furthermore, these regions hold strategic importance on the global stage. The CAR and GCC are essential for global energy supplies, while SAARC comprises key geopolitical players in South Asia.

This study focuses on the trade specialization of significant products in Bangladesh’s trade basket from 2008 to 2021 in forming SAFTA under SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation). The study utilized the Lafay Index to identify trade specialization; the prime products of Bangladesh are determined based on the continuous presence of any specific product within the list of top 10 products of Bangladesh each year during the study period. The study concluded that four of the five significant products are from the Garments sector, and the remaining one is from the Vegetable Oil sector. The significant products identified exhibited a relatively high degree of trade specialization in the context of SAARC and faced stiff competition from its neighbouring country, India. The post hoc Games-Howell test also revealed that most of the differences are statistically significant for all the major products. Based on the findings, this paper also offered the policy prescription for SAFTA. This research looks at the dynamics of specialisation and trade performance in Bangladesh in comparison to other SAARC countries. It helps shed light on the trading dynamics inside one of the most populous and economically varied areas of the world by centring on the local setting.

Since taxes are the foundation of an economy, an efficient tax system is essential to its continued existence. Revenue generation depends on effective taxation, which is measured by the tax system's elasticity and buoyancy. Using the data from 1991 to 2023, the tax buoyancy of a few South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) countries—Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka—are examined in this work. The estimation of coefficients has been done using the pool least square approach. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has been used as an explanatory variable to assess the buoyancy of the four components of taxes and total Tax. Although the buoyancy coefficients for Value Added Tax (VAT) and customs duties are statistically significant, they have coefficient values below 1, i.e. -3.49 and 0.21, respectively, indicating that they are ineffective automatic stabilizers for the chosen time frame. As a result, the government feels inflexible when it comes to implementing value-added Tax as a source of collecting revenue. On the other hand, income tax and sales tax are good automatic stabilizers, as they have a positive and significant link with GDP, as shown by the coefficient values of 6.95 and 6.1, which are bigger than 1. Income and sales tax rank highest among all revenue-generating levies, indicating that South Asian nations choose a progressive tax structure. However, the entire tax structure in South Asia is geared towards proportional adaptation and requires strict control to be strengthened. Policy lesson suggests that a better domestic tax system can aid in increasing revenue collection through taxes since the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), and World Trade Organization (WTO) discourage excise and customs duties.

The relationship between Pakistan and Bangladesh in the 21st century is deeply shaped by evolving regional geopolitical dynamics. Historically strained due to the events surrounding Bangladesh’s independence in 1971, relations between the two nations remain complex, characterized by lingering distrust and historical grievances. However, the shifting balance of power in South Asia, driven by strategic alliances and regional competition, continues to redefine this bilateral relationship. Pakistan, keen on expanding its regional influence, views Bangladesh’s growing partnership with India as a strategic challenge. This dynamic has intensified Pakistan's efforts to engage Bangladesh diplomatically and economically, aiming to balance India’s expanding influence in the region. Conversely, Bangladesh is navigating its foreign policy with increasing autonomy, balancing relations with regional powers like India, China, and Pakistan to safeguard its national interests. Regional geopolitics, particularly the strategic rivalry between India and Pakistan and the rising influence of China in South Asia, significantly impact Pakistan-Bangladesh relations. Bangladesh's active participation in regional platforms like the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) further complicates the geopolitical landscape. Additionally, Bangladesh’s constitutional commitment to fostering fraternal ties with Pakistan, rooted in shared cultural and historical connections, presents opportunities for diplomatic engagement despite underlying tensions. This study explores how these geopolitical factors shape the diplomatic, economic, and strategic interactions between Pakistan and Bangladesh. It also examines whether Bangladesh can develop an independent and balanced foreign policy that allows it to engage Pakistan on its own terms. Understanding the role of regional geopolitics in this evolving relationship is crucial for predicting future developments and fostering a more stable and cooperative South Asian region.

This study examines the effect of trade agreements on the bilateral export flows of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) countries. For empirical estimation, we applied a structural gravity model using the Poisson pseudo-maximum likelihood estimator on annual data from 2000 to 2019. Our approach, following recent developments in gravity trade literature, incorporates domestic sales alongside international trade to fully account for multilateral resistance to trade. The findings show that free trade agreements (FTAs) play a significant role in facilitating trade among SAARC countries, particularly in exporting raw materials and intermediate goods. In contrast, extra-bloc trade largely depends on preferential market access through programmes such as the generalized system of preferences (GSPs) scheme of the European Union. However, preferential tariff schemes designed for the least developed countries have no discernible impact. Surprisingly, no trade facilitation role is evident in the exports of capital goods. Based on these findings, the study offers policy guidance on how the structure of a trade agreement impacts trade connectivity within and beyond the bloc as well as export composition. Well-designed agreements with comprehensive tariff line coverage can facilitate exports of high-value-added products. Moreover, to effectively leverage the trade benefits enabled by GSP arrangements, developing countries must enhance their institutional capacities to ensure compliance with the social, environmental and other prerequisites outlined by GSPs.

To review the contributions to the ophthalmic research from the SAARC region in the top twenty ophthalmology journals. This was a bibliometric study and the top 20 ophthalmology journals, as ranked by the Scimago Journal Rankings (SJR) from 2021 and 2022 (two years), were selected for analysis. Only original research articles were included in the analysis. Articles were analysed based on authorship, corresponding authorship, and research centres within the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) region (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka). The main research topics were also examined. This data was recorded on Microsoft excel sheet and then descriptive analysis were calculated. Of the total 4952 articles reviewed, 208 (4.2%) had authorship from the SAARC region. Of the 38079 authors in total, 1133 (2.97%) were from the SAARC region and 715 (63.1%) were male. The authors from India contributed the most (n=1074, 94.8%) articles. Of the 155 corresponding authors from SAARC, 150 (96.78%) were from India. Research centres from India were the leading contributors, (n=166, 93.26%). Out of all the publications, medical retina accounted for 1546 (31.22%) of the total articles. Compared to its share of the world's population, the SAARC region's research contribution to the top twenty ophthalmology journals is nominal.

Foreign direct investment (FDI) is considered a vital element in the development strategies of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) economies. The institutional environment and macroeconomic conditions of host countries play crucial roles in attracting FDI. This study examines the influence of macroeconomic and institutional factors on FDI in six SAARC nations – Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Bhutan – from 2000 to 2020. The research explores the impact of various factors on FDI by utilizing panel data analysis methods, specifically fixed effects (FE) and two-stage least squares (TSLS). The dependent variable in this analysis is FDI inflows, while the independent macroeconomic variables include gross domestic product (GDP), financial development, inflation, and infrastructure. Institutional factors such as government effectiveness, governance level, political stability, and regulatory quality are also considered. The findings indicate that all the chosen variables significantly influence FDI inflows, except government effectiveness. SAARC governments should establish investment-friendly environments and implement fair policies to boost FDI, supporting sustainable economic growth and sustainable development goals (SDGs). This study contributes by aligning FDI strategies with global development goals, promoting inclusive growth, and improving infrastructure in the region. It extends previous research, providing deeper insights into the factors influencing FDI and its role in sustainable economic progress.

This study aims to examine the relationship between CO2 emissions, forest area, and GDP in each South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) country. This study uses a panel dataset that spans South Asian countries from 1990 to 2020 for econometric analysis. The Fully Modified Least Squares (FMOLS) method adds annual forested area to the regression model. The study results show that India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka must prioritize decoupling CO2 emissions from economic growth, as their strong correlation shows significant environmental costs of development. Although Bangladesh, Bhutan, and the Maldives are in a slightly better position, they need strategies to manage emissions as they progress economically. The study once again revealed a relationship between a 1% increase in GDP and a 0.68% rise in CO2 emissions, whereas a 1% increase in forest area led to a slightly higher 0.79% rise in CO2 over the period. The hypotheses testing results confirm a positive correlation between economic growth and carbon dioxide emissions in SAARC countries, indicating that emissions rise as economies expand. Additionally, a negative relationship was found between forest area and carbon dioxide emissions, where larger forest coverage is linked to lower emissions. The conclusion is that an increase in forest area is associated with a relatively small increase in CO2 emissions, indicating that the relationship between forest area and CO2 emissions is less pronounced compared to GDP.

Abstract Women’s empowerment is a critical aspect of societal development, particularly within the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) countries. This abstract examines the status of women’s empowerment in SAARC nations, with a special focus on Indian women. Despite concerted efforts and progress in some areas, significant challenges persist across the region, including low rates of female labor force participation, limited access to leadership roles, digital gender divides, financial exclusion, and high levels of gender-based violence. In India, while women have made notable strides in various sectors, such as politics, business, and science, there remain disparities in areas like labor force participation and access to leadership positions. Government policies and initiatives, such as Beti Bachao Beti Padhao and Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana, aim to address these challenges and promote gender equality. However, comprehensive strategies are needed to overcome deeply entrenched socio-cultural norms and structural barriers. Collaboration among SAARC member countries, along with targeted interventions, data-driven policymaking, and inclusive economic development, can foster women’s empowerment and contribute to more equitable and sustainable societies in the region.