Source Text Research Articles

This study examines the translation quality of thesis abstracts written by students in the Japanese Language Education program at Universitas Pendidikan Ganesha, Indonesia. This research uses using qualitative descriptive approach that uses Waddington’s (2001) Method A of Translation Quality Assessment to evaluate the accuracy of students’ Japanese translations of Indonesian abstracts. The dataset comprises 12 texts of bilingual abstracts analyzed using a single-rating analysis approach to identify types and severity of translation errors by using a data card. Ten error types were identified, with faux sense emerging as the most frequent and severe (−23), followed by style and grammatical errors (−15). These results indicate that students still struggle with expressing ideas naturally in Japanese and often fail to fully grasp the intended meaning of the source text. The findings suggest that while students demonstrate foundational skills in academic writing, additional training in translation strategies is necessary. Implications of this study suggest that the study has demonstrated the effectiveness of Waddington's A-Method as a practical diagnostic tool for assessing students' translation skills, providing evidence-based insights for improving teaching in translation practice. It also highlights the insights for improving teaching in translation practice and highlights the need to strengthen training in genre-specific academic writing and cross-cultural transfer. Future research is recommended to explore longitudinal research in academic translation development, integrate peer and AI-assisted feedback for translation assessment and evaluation, and compare with other quality assessment models to enhance learning outcomes in translation education.

This study investigates discourse reconstruction in translating Sunzi’s The Art of War from classical Chinese into English, focusing on how translators adapt grammatical cohesion devices to enhance readability and contribute to discourse reconstruction in the target text. The study employs a mixed-method approach, combining corpus analysis (via AntConc 3.5.7) with manual linguistic examination to analyze a dataset comprising the original text and its two translations, comparing the original with translations by Lin Wusun and Lionel Giles to examine shifts in reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction. Findings reveal that both translations rely more on reference and conjunction devices, while substitution and ellipsis are more frequent in the original. These shifts reflect translators’ strategies to clarify relationships and provide context for English readers, balancing fidelity to the source text with readability. This study contributes to discourse reconstruction by examining grammatical cohesion in classical Chinese-English translation, offering insights into how meaning is reorganized across languages and proposing a framework for further investigation into cross-cultural discourse reconstruction.

This paper reviews the literature on Cultural and Creative Tourism in Rural and Remote Areas in Europe, analysing major research themes, trends and future research areas. Systematic and narrative reviews were conducted of 316 complete text sources in Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar to provide comprehensive coverage of relevant sources. Additional searches of databases in 12 EU countries identified a further 467 texts in languages other than English, thereby strengthening the European perspective of the study. The data were coded thematically and analysed using ATLAS Ti software. The results show a strong recent growth in research, identifying four key areas of focus: experiencing rurality, staying in rural places, navigating the landscape, and developing tourism. Gastronomy and events were critical aspects of rural experiences, and a strong growth in intangible heritage research was identified. However, other areas lack attention, including geographical variations in rural areas and their effects on tourism experiences, the relationship between urban and rural contexts, and the meanings of remoteness. There is also a lack of research on key transversal themes, such as sustainability and governance. Areas identified as fruitful for future research include place-based analysis of CCT and further investigation into visitor motivations to inform experience development and the creation of new business models for desirable segments.

This paper examines the complex challenges involved in translating Simone de Beauvoir’s seminal feminist text The Second Sex into Malay (Jantina Kedua), focusing on the interplay between language, ideology, and sociocultural context. Drawing on key theories from Holmes, Nida, Vinay and Darbelnet, and Catford, the study explores how the translator navigates issues of cultural sensitivity, syntactic and lexical disparity, untranslatability, and ideological nuance. Particular attention is given to strategies used to handle culturally sensitive content, metaphorical language, and philosophical terminology. The analysis demonstrates that translation in this context is not merely a linguistic exercise but a deeply interpretative act shaped by the translator’s agency and cultural mediation. Ultimately, the study underscores the importance of balancing fidelity to the source text with readability and resonance for the target audience in the translation of feminist philosophical works.

In the context of "Chinese-Cultures-Go-Global," effectively communicating Chinese culture to the world has become a significant challenge. Numbers in literary and cultural texts are not merely quantitative markers but carriers of emotions, thoughts, and cognitive connotations, making the translation of numbers an increasingly important area of focus. Drawing on the prototype theory in cognitive linguistics, with an empirical survey, this paper offers an additional defense of Howard Goldblatt's translation of "六个姐姐 (liù gè jiě jie)" as "seven sisters". First, the paper explores and explains the rationale behind Goldblatt's choice of "seven sisters," arguing that "seven sisters" is more typical than "six sisters" because it embodies more core features of the source text, while the latter exhibits more peripheral ones of the source text. Second, the paper proposes a new standard for evaluating a literary translation: The core feature—fidelity to the source text—takes precedence over other factors; diversified versions of translations (i.e., "seven sisters" and "six sisters") belong to a family category of varied versions of the original. Evaluating the versions requires balancing core and peripheral features rather than solely emphasizing fuzzy fidelity to the original, which is adhered to by traditional translation studies, and the assessment of literary translation becomes more objective than before. By conducting a comparative analysis of the cultural connotations and cognitive characteristics of the source and target texts, this paper not only defends Goldblatt's translation choice but also provides new theoretical supports for translating numbers in literary texts and a new literary translation standard. It is both realistic and valuable for literary translation studies as well as constructive to cross-cultural communication.

As a 2022 monograph by Mike Ingham on literary connections in Anglophone popular songs and a 2011 book by Adam Hansen, specifically on Shakespeare and popular song, have demonstrated, there are numerous English-language popular songs that either deploy Shakespearean source texts and quotations or incorporate allusions to and variations on his play-texts and sonnets. The imagination of Anglophone artists as diverse as Bob Dylan, Elvis Costello, Taylor Swift, MC Lars, Mumford and Sons, Rufus Wainwright and Loreena McKennitt has been fired by the Bard’s work. However, what is less well appreciated in musicological studies of Shakespeare is that the dramatic poet’s work has inspired significant transcultural appropriations in Eastern European countries. During the 1980s, the decade leading up to the fall of the communist regime in the Eastern Bloc, the power of Shakespeare’s works to remain relevant in various socio-political and cultural contexts was attested by the two Bulgarian songs to be considered in the main body of this essay – “Julieta” (Juliet) by Tangra (1984) and “Hamlet” by Shturtsite (1985). They exemplify two different approaches to adapting the Shakespearean themes: the former re-imagines the meeting between the star-crossed lovers which ends with Juliet breaking Romeo’s heart, while the latter begins with a direct quotation from the play (in Bulgarian translation) and then contemporizes the young prince, whose difficult path toward maturity is accompanied by perennial emotional struggles. Our essay will explore these two songs and compare and contrast them with Anglophone songs based on themes of Hamlet and Romeo and Juliet that appeared slightly earlier, using the intertextuality- and intermediality-based approaches of Hansen’s and Ingham’s studies.

This special issue arises from the international workshop “Interlinear Translation Across the Muslim World: A Comparative Perspective,” held at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in November 2024 within the framework of the ERC-funded project Textual Microcosms: A New Approach in Translation Studies. The project examines interlinear translation in the Indonesian–Malay world between the sixteenth and twentieth centuries, viewing such texts as key sites of interlingual and intercultural encounter. Expanding this focus, the workshop explored interlinear translation across the Muslim world—as both a local practice and a shared transregional phenomenon—by examining the Arabic source text as a comparative “baseline” and a “shifting terrain” that invites scrutiny due to errors, mistranslations, doctrinal agendas, and ideas about untranslatability. The introduction surveys scholarship on interlinear translation from Persia, Turkey, and Islamic Spain to Africa, China, South Asia, and Southeast Asia, tracing its role not only in Qur’an translation but also in law, theology, Sufism, grammar, and poetry. It highlights interlinear translation as a dynamic textual practice with pedagogical, visual, and sociolinguistic significance.

This article examines the translation of the Kazakh concept aqyl (reason) in Abai Kunanbayev's prose (Book of Words) and poetry into English. As one of the author's central philosophical categories, aqyl encompasses intellectual and cultural dimensions that do not always find equivalents in English. The study aims to explore how the concept aqyl is represented in the source texts and subsequently reconfigured in translation. Methodologically, the study combines comparative textual analysis with cognitive-linguistic and metaphor-oriented approaches. The componential analysis makes it possible to distinguish the different semantic facets of aqyl, which are then traced in their English equivalents. The research identifies a wide range of translation equivalents (mind, reason, intellect, wisdom, conscience, advice, sage) and classifies them according to strategies such as literal rendering, functional equivalence, conceptual transfer, and metaphorical or poetic reframing. The distribution of these variants and strategies is presented in charts, which highlight the predominance of literal renderings but also demonstrate the important role of the interpretative approaches in maintaining conceptual richness and cultural nuance. These findings highlight the methodological challenges of translating culturally embedded concepts that lack direct equivalents in the target language. The study contributes to broader debates in translation studies on equivalence and cultural adaptation. The research shows how translator choices influence the reception of culturally specific concepts across languages and traditions. It further illustrates how translator choices shape the semantic and cultural reception of the author’s philosophical vision and underscores the need for approaches that balance linguistic accuracy with the preservation of conceptual and cultural depth.

ABSTRACT In this article, I explore the emotional aspects of one late eighteenth-century transatlantic family visit as recorded in the journal of an American girl, Catherine Greene Hickling (Prescott; 1768–1852), visiting her father on the Azores islands (1786–1788). Following a consideration of the ways the Hickling family’s circumstances were shaped by the Atlantic commercial and political world, I read Catherine Hickling’s account of the emerging emotional relationship with her father and their ‘re-kinning’ into a family. ‘Re-kinning’ is the term used to designate a deliberate process by which kin relationships, previously disrupted or threatened (by information or an event), are reaffirmed. I utilize Monique Scheer’s ‘emotions as practice’ approach, which entails both using textual sources and exploring how historical actors were expressing their emotions in historically specific embodied practices. I find first that, in addition to the verbal and performative aspects, ‘re-kinning’ involved a material aspect. Second, I point to the limits or ‘expiration date’ of ‘re-kinning’. This study adds a new perspective to the recent historical studies on the practice of emotions in families and the ways the affective family was maintained emotionally in a transnational global context. It also highlights the critical function families played in eighteenth-century Atlantic economies and the role of parenting in the early centuries of transnational migration.

Earnest Hemingway's The Old Man and the Sea (1952) depicts a man's existential struggle through the events of a fisherman who desperately struggles to catch a giant fish. The challenges the protagonist faces drive him to rely on his faith in God as the novel teems with religious utterances and symbols. This study examines the religious and ideological terms and expressions in Hemingway's novel, the source text (ST), and explains how each translator renders these religious expressions in a manner that conforms with the expectations of their audiences. This study compares the two Arabic translations of the novel by two translators from different ideological and religious backgrounds. The translations of this novel show many discrepancies, particularly with regard to the choice of religious terms. The study selects examples from the source text, i.e., English, into the target text, i.e., Arabic, by two Arab translators, Muneer Ba’lbaki (Muslim) and Gabrielle Wahbeh (Christian), that show how the ideology of the translator, specifically religion, influences the choice of terms and expressions. This study finds that the translator's religious, personal, and cultural backgrounds, in this case study, partially affect his or her choice of translated expressions to meet his ideology and the target audiences' expectations.

Turkish poetry experienced significant changes in the 1950s and 1960s with the Second New (İkinci Yeni), which brought about alterations in poetic structure and created a unique sensibility in modern Turkish poetry through its innovative use of language, inquisitive perspective on existence, and critical stance toward Modernism. Ece Ayhan, one of the leading poets of the Second New, is renowned for his innovative and often challenging use of metaphor. The present study explores the challenges of translating metaphor across linguistic and cultural boundaries through a comparative analysis of English translations of Ece Ayhan’s poem ‘‘Phaeton’’ (Fayton). George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980) redefined the study of metaphor from a cognitive perspective, proposing that metaphor should not be regarded solely as a rhetorical or stylistic device, but rather as a fundamental mechanism of conceptualization. By examining two target texts created by the poet-translators George Messo and Murat Nemet-Nejat, the metaphors in the source text and their equivalents in the target texts are examined through a multi-layered analytical framework combining Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT), and Newmark’s (1981) practical taxonomy of translation strategies. This study offers a multidimensional analysis of metaphor transfer by integrating Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) with Newmark’s procedural approach, highlighting the challenges of translating culturally embedded and poetically dense metaphors in Ayhan’s work, and contributing to broader discussions on literary translation, and the cross-cultural movement of avant-garde poetry.

The future of literary translation has become a major concern due to the rapid development and integration of artificial intelligence in creative and interpretive domains. This research performs a comparative analysis of the Arabic translation of J.D. Salinger's iconic novel The Catcher in the Rye, translated by Ghalib Halasa, and the Arabic translation produced by ChatGPT, developed by OpenAI. The study explores how both translations convey complex literary elements, including stylistic voice, cultural allusions, idiomatic expressions, and emotional resonance. The evaluation employs carefully selected excerpts of the text and relies on formal theories of translation. These include Vinay and Darbelnet's stylistic approach, Peter Newmark's semantic and communicative approach, and Eugene Nida's dynamic and formal equivalence. The results show that although ChatGPT achieves high lexical accuracy and syntactic fluency, it consistently ignores the pragmatic and cultural meanings of the source text. Halasa's human translation, by contrast, reflects cultural sensitivity, interpretive depth, and contextual awareness more in line with the goals of literary Arabic communication. The research contends that artificial intelligence, at present, lacks the creativity and skill to simulate human literary translation. By exploring the potential and limitations of AI for translating literature across cultures, this study contributes to the cross-disciplinary debates among the fields of Arabic literary studies, machine translation, and digital humanities.

This paper presents the publication of new joins to a text source for the umṣatu skin mark tablet of the alamdimmû series (BM.52614, Böck 2000, 184‑95 source C). BM.45680+45825 and BM.46091 have been joined by the author, and BM.46188 by Eric Schmidtchen. These joins not only enhance the reconstruction of the series but also reveal new anatomical terms and revise previously suggested meanings. New terms include dūr lišāni, the ‘wall of the tongue’ (leading to a study of all parts of the body whose names are constructed with dūru followed by a genitive), and ḫinpi ammati, the ‘crook of the arm’.

This study examines the English translation of Ismat Chughtai’s Lihaaf (1942), a work exploring female sexuality, repression, and desire, employing Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and Sherry Simon’s theory of Gender and Translation to investigate the male translator’s subjectivity and its influence on the construction of female identity in the target text. The study aims to analyze the ideological and cultural biases of the translator and their impact on the depiction of female sexuality and desire. It explores whether the translator’s lexical choices reinforce or challenge the critique of patriarchal structures present in the Urdu source text. The primary aim of this study is to investigate the impact of the male translator’s subjectivity on the construction of female identity in the English translation of Ismat Chughtai’s Lihaf. The study employs qualitative content analysis and CDA. It contributes to the growing body of research on gender and translation, highlighting the importance of considering the ideological and cultural biases of translators. The findings indicate that the male translator’s subjectivity significantly influences the construction of female identity in the target text, emphasizing the need for translators to be aware of their own biases and assumptions.

This study aims to provide an annotated translation of figures of speech in the short story “You Perfect, Broken Thing” by C.L. Clark in Uncanny Magazine Issue Thirty-Two and to examine the translation strategies applied in human and machine translation. The data was analyzed using a descriptive qualitative and quantitative method. The main theory applied is Chesterman’s (2016) translation strategies, focusing on syntactic and semantic strategies. A total of 61 data are categorized by type of figure of speech: 30 metaphors, 14 idioms, and 17 paradoxical sentences were identified along with their translation processes. The result shows that human translation applies semantic strategies in all of metaphors, idioms, and paradoxical sentences, and syntactic strategies in metaphors (33,3%), idioms (64,2%), and paradoxical sentences (64,7%). Meanwhile, machine translation applies semantic strategies in metaphors (66,7%), idioms (66,3%), and paradoxical sentences (35,3%), and syntactic strategies in metaphors (66,7%), idioms (35,7%), and paradoxical sentences (100%). This shows that human translation is more dominant in applying semantic strategies (100%) that prioritize the translation in contextual meaning. In contrast, machine translation is more dominant in applying syntactic strategies (68.85%) that tend to keep the source text’s structure.

The present paper looks closely at how “The homily for the circumcision of our Lord”, written by Péter Melius Juhász and published in his Válogatott prédikációk (1563), was used as a source text by an anonymous Romanian author who compiled the first Romanian collection of sermons, printed by Coresi in 1567. In turn, the Romanian homiliary was translated into Ruthenian, with substantial adjustments, intended for the spiritual edification of Eastern Orthodox readers. The only extant copy of the Ruthenian version is the so-called Neagovo Postil, dating from 1758. Writing at a time when the Reformed scholars across Europe were doing their utmost to develop a hermeneutical framework in opposition to Roman Catholicism, Melius introduced a dense network of Scriptural prooftexts in his homilies and employed various Hebrew, Greek and Latin words to give weight to his theological assertions. While largely preserving the sophisticated theological exegesis deployed by Melius, the Romanian author watered down the arguments used in the second part of the Romanian version and significantly abridged the text. By contrast, the Ruthenian version offers a simplified version of the Romanian text, keeping only 35 biblical references (out of 51 in Coresi’s version) and removing the polemical remarks directed against Eastern Orthodox practices such as monasticism, fasting and the cult of the saints. The second part of this paper includes a transcription of Melius’s Hungarian sermon, a Romanian translation of the Hungarian text, Coresi’s printed version, a transcription of the Ruthenian text, and a Romanian translation based on the latter.

Swahili Tenzi za kale za Kiswahili ni hazina ya urithi wa historia na utamaduni wa Waswahili. Tenzi hizi zilitungiwa hadhira ya watu wazima. Aghalabu zimesheheni lugha ya kale, mitindo tata ya kishairi na maudhui ya kifalsafa na kidini. Hivyo, ni ngumu kwa watoto kuelewa tenzi za kale. Hali hii ni changamoto kwa watoto kupokea utamaduni na historia ya Waswahuli. Wasanii wa kisasa wamefanya jitihada kusimilisha tenzi hizo kuwa fasihi ya watoto. Hata hivyo, tafiti hazijachunguza kwa kina usimilisho kama njia ya kuwasilisha utamaduni na historia. Makala hii imechunguza usimilisho wa tenzi za kale kama njia ya kukuza uelewa wa historia na utamaduni kwa watoto. Tenzi mbili; Fumo Liyongo na Mwana Kupona zilizingatiwa. Aidha, masimilisho ya tenzi teule; Kisa cha Fumo Liyongo (KcFL), Mkasa wa Shujaa Liyongo (MwSHL) na Wasifu wa Mwana Kupona (WwMK) yalitumika. Data ya utafiti ilikusanywa kupitia usomaji makini wa matini chaili na matini lengwa. Uchanganuzi wa data ulifanywa kwa misingi ya Nadharia ya Usimilisho ya Hutcheon (2013). Utafiti ulibaini kuwa historia ya mashujaa, mifumo ya kiutawala, dini, sherehe, vyakula na mavazi viliundwa upya kwa njia nyepesi na picha za kimaelezo ili kufaa hadhira ya watoto. Hivyo, usimilisho ulichangia katika kukuza ufahamu wa kitamaduni na kihistoria kwa vizazi vijavyo. Makala hii inapendekeza watafiti wa baadaye wachunguze kazi nyingine za usimilisho wa tenzi za kale kutoka tamaduni tofauti za Kiafrika. EnglishClassical Swahili epics are a rich repository of the historical and cultural heritage of the Swahili people. These poems were originally composed for an adult audience. They are often characterised by archaic language, complex poetic styles, and philosophical as well as religious themes. As a result, they are difficult for children to understand. This poses a challenge for the transmission of Swahili culture and history to younger generations. Modern artists have made efforts to adapt these epics into children’s literature. However, few studies have examined adaptation as a means of transmitting culture and history. This paper examined the adaptation of classical Swahili epics as a way of enhancing children’s understanding of history and culture. Two epics, Fumo Liyongo and Mwana Kupona, were analysed along with their adaptations: Kisa cha Fumo Liyongo (KcFL), Mkasa wa Shujaa Liyongo (MwSHL) and Wasifu wa Mwana Kupona (WwMK). Data were collected through close reading of both source and target texts. The analysis was guided by Linda Hutcheon’s (2013) Theory of Adaptation. The study found that the depiction of heroes, systems of governance, religion, ceremonies, food, and clothing were creatively restructured in a simple and illustrative manner to suit a children’s audience. Therefore, adaptation contributed significantly to promoting cultural and historical awareness among younger generations. The paper recommends that future researchers explore other adaptations of classical African epics from different cultural contexts. Keywords: adaptation, adaptations, classical epics , children’s literature, culture, history

In recent decades, the convergence of technical and professional communication (TPC) with translation studies (TS) has underscored the necessity for collaboration across disciplinary borders. However, challenges remain, particularly in translating specialized texts deeply connected to local cultures. This paper investigates a virtual exchange (VE) project focused on translating multilingual menus, which pose unique challenges due to their embeddedness in local cultures. The study explores translators' strategies in dealing with culture-specific items (CSIs) and their collaboration with TPC writers representing the target audience. The methodology section outlines the case study's participants and dataset, while the results shed light on effective strategies and collaborative approaches in translating menus within a VE context. A key takeaway is that technical translation requires not only a deep understanding of the terminology and concepts of a specific field, but also a commitment to working with TPC writers and target audiences to transform source texts into usable and persuasive target texts – an approach that VE environments can uniquely support through authentic, cross-cultural collaboration.

Problem definition: A firm’s stakeholders would benefit from a quantitative measure of the managerial disclosure of its operational risk and the implications of this disclosure. However, a quantitative and scalable measure of a firm’s disclosed operational risk is unavailable. Thus, the firm’s stakeholders remain unaware of its disclosed operational risk and the risk’s implications. Methodology/results: U.S. law requires a public firm to textually disclose its operational and nonoperational risks in Item 1A of its annual report (i.e., Form 10-K). We train 64 transformer models on U.S. public firms’ Item 1A text to score 131,920 firm-years (16,959 firms, 2005 to 2024) on eight risk factors: (1) accounting, (2) finance, (3) international, (4) legal, (5) management, (6) marketing, (7) operations, and (8) technology. We measure each transformer’s performance on eight metrics. Next, our Python code retains each risk factor’s best-performing transformer (among the eight). Subsequently, our regression estimates report that a firm’s disclosed operational risk is positively associated with its operational cost and that its disclosed nonoperational risk strengthens this positive association, thus supporting our two hypotheses. Our OSF repository includes an Excel file that contains a data dictionary and count and probability scores of the eight risk factors for 131,920 firm-years (16,959 firms, 2005 to 2024). The repository also includes our Python code file and trained models’ files. Managerial implications: First, our empirical evidence informs managers and corporate stakeholders that a firm’s disclosed operational and nonoperational risks are associated with its operational cost, thus showcasing disclosure’s relevance. Second, our Excel data file provides stakeholders with eight risk factors for 131,920 firm-years (16,959 firms, 2005 to 2024). Third, one can also use our Python code files and trained transformers to measure risk reflected in other sources of firm-generated text (e.g., managers’ answers in earnings calls, CEO interviews, and press releases). Supplemental Material: The online appendix is available at https://doi.org/10.1287/msom.2025.0134 .

Multilingual communication barriers in educational and professional settings present significant challenges for effective knowledge transfer and cross-cultural collaboration. Traditional translation methods often suffer from context loss, linguistic nuances, and scalability issues when dealing with diverse language pairs. Manual translation is time-intensive and costly, while existing automated solutions frequently lack domain-specific accuracy and cultural sensitivity. The system proposes an Automatic Multilingual Translation Framework using Deep Learning techniques to address these linguistic complexities. Deep learning models can capture semantic relationships and contextual dependencies across different languages through learned representations. The model is built using a hybrid LSTM-based Sequence-to-Sequence architecture that combines custom tokenization for efficient text preprocessing and Long Short-Term Memory networks for capturing long-range dependencies in multilingual contexts. The system processes structured CSV datasets containing English source text and implements comprehensive data cleaning pipelines to handle noise, inconsistencies, and formatting variations. Custom tokenizer implementation ensures optimal vocabulary coverage across target languages including Hindi, Tamil, and other regional languages. The framework models essential linguistic constraints such as grammatical structure preservation, semantic coherence maintenance, and cultural context adaptation. Additionally, it considers optimization factors such as translation accuracy metrics, computational efficiency, and scalability across varying dataset sizes. The system focuses on benefiting educational institutions and multinational organizations by providing an intelligent, scalable framework capable of generating accurate translations for diverse content types and linguistic complexities.