Somali Conflict Research Articles

The Nexus of Climate Change, Food Insecurity, and Conflict in Somalia: A Comprehensive Analysis of Multifaceted Challenges and Resilience Strategies

Climate change poses a significant threat to Somalia’s food security and stability. This review examines the complex interplay between climate change impacts, food insecurity, and conflict in Somalia. Recent climate data and forecasts paint a concerning picture: the rainfall probabilistic forecast for April- June 2024 indicates a high likelihood of above-normal rainfall across much of Somalia, thus increasing the flood risks. Concurrently, temperature forecasts project above-normal temperatures, potentially exacerbating drought conditions between the rainy seasons. Historical climatology data reveal Somalia’s vulnerability, with average temperatures ranging from 25°C to 30°C and significant seasonal variations affecting agriculture and water resources. These climate trends, combined with ongoing political instability and weak governance, have created a storm of challenges. This perspective explores how recurrent droughts and floods disrupt agricultural production, decimate livestock, and displace vulnerable populations, particularly those affecting rural and nomadic communities. It also examines how environmental stress exacerbates poverty and conflict, thereby creating a vicious cycle of vulnerability. This analysis draws on recent data on poverty rates, food expenditure patterns, and climate-related displacement, to illustrate the multifaceted nature of the crisis. Finally, this perspective proposed recommendations for building climate resilience, enhancing food security, and promoting sustainable development in Somalia, emphasizing the need for integrated approaches that combine immediate humanitarian assistance with long-term adaptation strategies.

Obstacles of conflicts on banana production and marketing in the agricultural development project of Merka district in Lower Shabelah region, south Somalia

The purpose of this study is to investigate the economic impact of the decline in banana exports in the Merka district, Somalia. Bananas and their business constitute the backbone of Somalia's economy, being the second most crucial component after livestock. Various reasons, including the civil war in Somalia and poor security, led banana companies to cease exporting, resulting in a significant economic impact on Somali society. The study employed a descriptive cross-sectional survey approach, distributing a designed questionnaire to the target population comprising 60 banana experts, farmers, economists, and other exporters. The researchers used the Slovenian formula to determine a sample size of 52 individuals and employed a non-probability purposive sampling method. For data analysis, descriptive statistical analysis with mean and standard deviation was conducted using the SPSS application version 16. According to the study's results, the majority of respondents, 69.2 per cent, attributed the fall in banana exports to a lack of security. Similarly, 48.1 per cent of respondents attributed the decline to inappropriate marketing. Additionally, 36.5 per cent of respondents agreed that the lack of infrastructure was the cause, while 42.3 per cent attributed it to the absence of government facilities. I strongly agree with this assessment. Finally, 30.8 per cent of respondents disagreed or strongly disagreed that land conflicts were responsible for the decline in banana exports in Merka, Somalia. The researchers recommended enhancing security in banana plantation areas, modernising existing markets and exploring new ones, incentivising local production and improving infrastructure, particularly roads connecting plantations to markets.

Peace Education and Conflict Prevention in Somalia

This study focused on Peace Education and Conflict Prevention in Somalia. The specific objectives of the study were to find out the different perceptions of the Somali people on peace education and conflict prevention in Somalia, to explore the importance of peace education in conflict prevention in Somalia and to determine the relationship between peace education and conflict prevention in Somalia. The study used qualitative research design using documentary analysis of various perspectives of the Somali people and that of scholars. The goal of the researcher was to expose the perspective of Somali educators on the importance of peace education and the possible causes and consequences of the conflict as well as the relationship that exist between peace education and conflict in Somalia. This study carried out a critical review of existing literature with in-depth interviews with key informants from the education sector. By employing qualitative approach in the study, the researcher carried out a thorough investigation into a wide range of secondary. Data was collected via the use of documentary review and interview guide. The study also relied on secondary data from textbooks, journals, and academic papers. The main findings of the study revealed that that peace education contributes to conflict prevention in Somalia. This was clearly revealed from the finding of the study where majority of the respondents an overwhelming majority of over (90%) of the participants in the study showed positive and relevant perception about peace education being the best tool that can be used to prevent conflict in Somalia, the study revealed that (100%) of the participants in the study agreed that peace education is vastly important in as far as conflict prevention is concerned in Somalia and lastly the study revealed that (100%) of the participants agreed and noted that peace education is related to conflict prevention. The study recommends that the Ministry of Education of the Federal Republic of Somalia and should reform and revise the current secondary and primary schools curriculum and then incorporate peace education with all the required contents which are instrumental in providing in-depth knowledge and skills to prevent conflict in Somalia, the Ministry of Education of Somalia should review the structure of the peace education programme goals, and its organization in order to bear fruits it is prepared for. Teachers, students, and parents are not familiar with the target goals and structure of peace education in Somalia. It is in this context that the program is still unpopular among these groups of people and the Federal Government of Somalia should ensure proper and timely training of teachers on peace education.

A Critical Analysis of the Rights of an Accused Person During Trial in Somalia

This study focuses on critical analysis of the rights of an accused person during trial in Somalia. The rights of accused person in Somalia have become a contentious and serious issue owing to the on-going civil war in Somalia which has now lasted for two decades. The doctrinal research methodoly was used to collect and analyse the data used in the study. The relevant secondary data were collected through documetary review where relevant data was collected from different books, national and international legal statutues and scholarly publications of scholars in relation to the rights of an accused person during trial in Somalia. The study employed a systematic procedure to analyse documentary evidence and answer specific research questions in the study through repeated review, examination and interpretation of the data in order to gain meaning and empirical knowledge of the construct being studied. The study analysed the rights of an accused person under the various national laws of Somalia, the various forms of violation of the rights of an accused person in Somalia and the causes of the violation of the rights of an accused person in Somalia. The main findings of the study revealed that the various and sufficient rights of an accused person during train in Somalia, as provided by the Provisional Constitution of Somalia, 2012, and the Criminal Code Act of Somalia, 1963, include: right to liberty and security, right to be informed promptly of the offence charged, right to fair and speedy trial, right to humane treatment, the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty, right to a fair hearing, right to defend himself or herself, right to counsel, right to be informed of the nature offense an accused person has committed, the right to an interpreter, the right to be present at the trial, right to be brought promptly before a capable court, the right to habeas corpus, the right to apply for bail, the right not to be compelled to testify against himself or herself, right to examine evidence or witnesses and the right to appeal. However, these rights are neither being promoted nor protected in Somalia; instead they are being violated in various ways which they encompass: violation of arrest procedures and unfair and cruel treatment of accused person, arbitrary arrest, denial of fair public trial, violation of trial procedures, unlawful treatment and detention of political prisoners and accused persons being caused by structural and legal ambiguity, the continuous practise of legal pluralism, the existence of broken chain in the justice system, high level of corruption and mismanagement, military interference. The study recommended that the Federal Government of Somalia through its three organs should enact new law, promote fair and procedural arrest of accused train and sensitise the people about their rights as an accused and should initiate good policies and project that can foster the promotion and protection of human rights in the sphere of accused person’s protection during and after trial in Somalia.

Inter-Clan Conflicts and the Long Journey to State-Building in Somalia – Internal and International Effects

The main purpose of the article is to investigate and analyze the inter-clan conflict and its consequences as well as the role of subregional and international organizations such as African Unions in conflict resolution and peace-building efforts in Somalia. Compared to various regions in Africa, the Horn of Africa was the region that was the most affected by internal and external conflicts. In this region, Somalia faced not only Clan problems but also suffered from rule dictatorial rules. The research hypothesis states that, traditional social structures, comprising of the clan and sub-clan identity are the main factors of disagreement and the international community peace initiatives couldn’t bring lasting peace in Somalia. Investigation questions include: What are the root causes of Somali conflict? What are the effects of the role of regional and international organizations in Somali conflict resolution? Despite being the most homogeneous nations in Africa, why did Somalis have one of the longest civil wars in the Horn of Africa? The tension in Somalia which began after the downfall of the central government in Somalia in 1991 convoluted the well-being of the citizens in the region. Among the states of the Horn of Africa, Somalia turned out to be one the most affected regarding instability and humanitarian and political turmoil. This article tries to explore the main problems Somalia faced after the end of the Cold War, the consequences of the conflict and other issues related to social and political problems taken place in Somalia. The research mainly depends on the qualitative method of data collection analysis.

Despite misinformation, low trust, and conflict in Somalia, high demand for vaccines and a negative endorsement effect of non-state authorities

Expanding vaccination coverage in conflict regions is crucial to the prevention of further mutations and outbreaks of COVID-19, as well as of future pandemics, worldwide. However, scholars’ suppositions that low levels of trust and control over the flow of misinformation in these regions may necessitate tailored solutions—in particular, that health advice come from trusted non-state authorities—remain largely untested. To better understand the levels and drivers of COVID-19 vaccine receptivity in conflict regions, we partnered with the United Nations and the Somali Ministry of Justice to field a three-wave panel survey (N1\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$N_1$$\\end{document} = 1672; N2\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$N_2$$\\end{document} = 880; N3\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$N_3$$\\end{document} = 908) and vaccine endorsement experiment in South Central Somalia. We observe high overall demand for vaccines (between 90 and 94%), particularly among those who have experienced violence and illness, who perceive high economic disruption due to the pandemic, and who report more favorable views of and exposure to the West and Western-affiliated organizations. The high overall demand is particularly striking given respondents’ low interpersonal trust and considerable exposure to vaccine disinformation. Contrary to scholars’ and policymakers’ expectations, we find that whereas endorsements from government health authorities increase vaccine receptivity, endorsements from non-state customary authorities and extremist militant group Al-Shabaab decrease support for vaccination (− 8 and − 16% points, respectively). Our findings caution against presupposing a need for different approaches to increasing vaccination coverage in conflict regions, and suggest that at least in the short-term, constraints on vaccine supply and access are more likely to bind than those on demand.

Ila Hadal Walaal: A Traditional Reconciliation Model for Healing Somalia's Wounds

Reconciliation involves rebuilding relationships among people and groups in society and between the state and its citizens. The protracted conflict in Somalia had devastating effects on Somali citizens. Formulating a genuine social reconciliation model that can contribute to trauma healing, trust building, and an enabled environment for forgiveness and sharing narratives continues to pose daunting challenges to peace and state-building in Somalia. This paper provides analytical thinking by coalescing traditional Somali reconciliation approaches and modern peace-building principles. It attempts to establish a new model based on Somali cultural norms and values. The paper pinpoints the legal, institutional, and political issues that are prerequisite for any viable and successful social reconciliation. It recommends capacity development of public institutions mandated to facilitate and oversee national, regional, and local reconciliation exercises while underscoring the pivotal role of women and other members of civil society.

Hajj Factor in Saudi Arabia and Somaliland Relations

The Islamic sacred city Mecca is the destination of global Muslims’ hajj activities. Saudi Arabia and countries with a large number of Muslims attach great importance to the special role of hajj in international relation, especially in the relationship between Saudi Arabia and Somaliland, which is mainly reflected in two aspects. Firstly, Somaliland is one of the main export destination of the livestock for Eid Al Adha of the hajj rituals. Eid Al Adha is an important part of the hajj rituals, and is also the obligation of most hajj pilgrims. With the sharp increase in the number of pilgrims all over the world in recent years, Saudi Arabia needs to import a large number of livestock from Somaliland and Sudan to meet its basic religious needs. Somaliland is a so-called ‘republic’ within Somalia’s territory that declared ‘independence’ on its own, which has not been universally recognised by the international community. Over the years, Somaliland has maintained a relatively stable situation. Its economic mainstay is livestock export, especially during the hajj season. Although the export of livestock from Somaliland to Saudi Arabia has been interrupted many times due to the animal infectious diseases, the huge demand for sacrifice in the hajj rituals highlights the importance of Somaliland. In other words, the smooth and complete performance of the hajj has largely maintained the development of Saudi Arabia’s relations with Somaliland. Secondly, Saudi Arabia invited the ‘President’ of Somaliland to Mecca for hajj, and also urged the easing of conflicting relations between Somaliland authorities and the Somali federal government. Somalia does not recognise the ‘independence’ of Somaliland. The conflict between the two sides also affects the allocation of hajj quota, which has triggered strong dissatisfaction and resistance in Somaliland. For example, Somaliland complained to Saudi Arabia for Somalia’s ‘politicisation’ of hajj. In order to cool down the conflict in Somalia, Saudi Arabia invited the ‘President’ and some senior officials of Somaliland to perform the hajj in Mecca, and held informal talks with senior officials of the Somali government during the hajj. In general, hajj has played a significant role in promoting the relationship between Saudi Arabia and Somaliland. For Saudi Arabia, the animal sacrifice trade for hajj has actually consolidated the economic foundation of Somaliland and helped it play a relatively stable demonstration role in the Horn of Africa. Saudi Arabia has also carried out the host diplomacy of hajj in Mecca to promote the talks between Somaliland’s and Somali officials during their hajj activities. For Somaliland, the export of a large number of livestock for Eid Al Adha allowed it to play an important religious role in the annual hajj, thus gaining Saudi Arabia’s economic and political support to a certain extent, contributing to a win-win situation in the fields of religion, economy and security.

Prevalence of mental disorders and psychological trauma among conflict- affected population in Somalia: a cross-sectional study.

Despite the longstanding psychosocial impact of the interactable conflict in Somalia for the last 30 years, there is lack of epidemiological studies of mental health conditions, especially at the population level. The aim of this study is to fill the epidemiological gap and provide population based data on mental health conditions in the South-Central region of Somalia. The specific objectives were: (1) To determine the epidemiological patterns of mental disorders in three sites; Baidoa, Dolow and Kismayo, (2) Understand the socio-demographic characteristics associated with mental health conditions in the study sites, and (3) To assess the correlates between psychological trauma and the mental wellbeing of the population. This was a cross-sectional study of 713 respondents recruited from the three sites namely Dolow, Baidoa and Kismayo. Data on sociodemographic characteristics and mental disorders were collected using the MINI and sociodemographic questionnaire. Basic descriptive statistics were used to summarize sociodemographic characteristics. Univariable and multivariable logistic regressions were used to examine factors associated with common mental disorders. Statistical significance was considered at a value of p <0.05. Participants' mean age was 32.6 (±10.7) years. More than half (58.5%) of the respondents were male. The overall prevalence of common mental disorders was 557 (78.1%) with panic disorder (39.3%), generalized anxiety disorders (34.9%), major depressive episode current (32.1) and PTSD (29.9%). According to the multivariable logistic regression analysis, being male AOR = 1.74 (95%CI = 1.25, 2.42), having a family size of more than 10 members AOR =1.37 (95% CI = 1.00, 1.89), being unemployed AOR = 1.90 (95%CI = 1.18, 3.06), experienced starvation AOR =3.46 (95%CI = 2.23, 5.37), khat use AOR = 5.87 (955 CI, 1.75-19.65), were identified as predicting factors for the common mental disorders among the study participants. There is a high prevalence of mental disorders with anxiety disorders being the commonest. Findings reflect earlier studies that showed higher rates in conflict and post-conflict settings. It also aligns with past studies in Somalia. As such, there is an urgent need to integrate mental health and psychosocial support within the primary healthcare and other service sectors such as education considering the vast majority of the population are young.

A Study of the Complexities of Violence in the Horn of Africa Region

This research paper examines the complexities of conflict in the Horn of Africa, with a particular focus on Somalia. The study investigates the multifaceted political, social, and economic factors that contribute to the widespread terrorism and violence prevalent in the region. A central element of this investigation involves an in-depth analysis of the organization known as Al-Shabaab, encompassing its historical roots, current activities, and potential future implications. The paper delves into the historical context of the conflict in Somalia, identifying key events and dynamics that have shaped the current situation. The examination of political factors encompasses an assessment of governance structures, power struggles, and regional and international involvement. Additionally, the study explores social drivers, such as identity issues, religious ideologies, and communal tensions, which contribute to the perpetuation of violence. Furthermore, the research paper addresses the economic dimensions of the conflict, including the role of resources, inequalities, and economic grievances in sustaining instability. A comprehensive evaluation of Al-Shabaab's origins, objectives, and tactics elucidates its significance in the conflict landscape. In seeking potential solutions, the paper considers both short-term measures and long-term strategies to resolve the conflict. The analysis encompasses efforts by regional and international actors, examining their successes and challenges in countering the violence and addressing the root causes. The identification of best practices and lessons learned from previous endeavours inform the formulation of effective approaches for lasting peace and stability. Overall, this research paper presents a thorough examination of the conflict in the Horn of Africa, shedding light on the intricate web of factors contributing to the persistence of violence in Somalia. By elucidating the actions and motivations of Al-Shabaab, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of the conflict landscape. The proposed potential solutions aim to provide valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders in their pursuit of sustainable peace and development in the region.

The Role of Humanitarian-Development-Peace Nexus in Addressing Protracted Environmental Conflicts in Somalia: A Critical Review

The Role of Humanitarian-Development-Peace Nexus in Addressing Protracted Environmental Conflicts in Somalia: A Critical Review

Opportunities of HDP – Nexus in Tackling Recurring Environmental Conflicts in Somalia

Opportunities of HDP – Nexus in Tackling Recurring Environmental Conflicts in Somalia

Role of the Humanitarian – Development – Peace (HDP) Nexus evidence in Tackling Protracted Environmental Conflicts in Somalia

Role of the Humanitarian – Development – Peace (HDP) Nexus evidence in Tackling Protracted Environmental Conflicts in Somalia

Counterinsurgency as order-making: refining the concepts of insurgency and counterinsurgency in light of the Somali civil war

ABSTRACT In this paper, we argue that the current insurgency and counterinsurgency discourse is dominated by concepts that are too narrow and too isolated from the wider civil war literature within which insurgency and counterinsurgency occur. Rather than accounting for the complex political processes and wide range of forces and actors that shape conflict dynamics, the dominant insurgency and counterinsurgency debate tends to reduce highly messy contexts to a competition between the often false dichotomy of insurgents and counterinsurgents, usually understood as the state versus one or more non-state violent actors. In order to understand civil war contexts like South-Central Somalia, we argue that orthodox reductionist concepts and assumptions underpinning the dominant insurgency and counterinsurgency discourse provide limited value. Building on recent critical literature, the paper proposes a refined conceptualization. Instead of understanding insurgency and counterinsurgency as peculiar forms of war, strategies, or sets of guerilla tactics, we follow Jaqueline Hazelton’s line of thought, suggesting that insurgency and counterinsurgency are mere elements of a broader process of violent order-making. Thus, insurgency and counterinsurgency are, in our view, comprehensive processes of organized challenge to and consolidation of established political order within the context of civil war.

Colonial Amnesia and the Material Remains of Italian Colonialism in Mogadishu

This essay examines the material legacies of Italian colonialism in Mogadishu in the aftermath of postcolonial transformations and the devastation of the Somali Civil War. It traces the history of colonial Mogadishu and the deep imprint of the Italian state on the city's spatial organization and architectural heritage. From 1893 to 1941, the city was transformed into a colonial capital through the imposition of a new European-style city upon the old historic centre. This required the demolition of pre-colonial structures and homes, and the displacement of many Somalis to the outskirts the city. With independence, colonial sites were appropriated and nationalized – streets honouring Italian figures were renamed to honour Somalis; colonial buildings became national buildings. With these transformations, however, the colonial history of the now postcolonial capital city became invisibilised and easily forgotten.

Analysing Somalia Conflict: Involving Actors, Causes, Triggering and Possible Solutions

This study is analyst Somali conflict roots and investigate social effects of this long term conflicts. This paper is analyzing Somali conflict and it is backed up by analyzing and utilizing existing literature as well as reports. It also included include the comprehensive range of conflict dynamics identified, and the way in which factors that are identified as having greater importance are identified and discussed. This paper is Structuration approach of the framework provides a degree of sophistication in distinguishing conflict enablers, such as availability of arms, from sources of tension such as chronic resource shortages unemployment and the limitations of traditional legal frameworks. Furthermore, the essay also presented the possible solutions on Somalia conflict such as it presented to apply indigenous or grass root peace building approach which Somaliland managed its civil wars and conflict and also build democratic political authority which have the popularity as well as legitimacy of its own people. Also this essay identifying the role of actors or agencies of Somalia Conflict by declaring their positions and also underlying interests of the conflicting parties. Finding the causing and triggering factors of Somaliland conflict and long historical linked problems from traditional, and solutions to solve Somaliland Elders and clams are solve their conflict’s in 1991.

The False Promise of Foreign Fighters: The Effect of Somali Foreign Fighters on Civilian Victimization

Why is there intra-rebel group variation in the amount of civilian victimization perpetrated during civil war? I focus on the connection between intra-rebel group distribution of foreign fighters and civilian victimization. I argue that cells within a rebel group that include more foreign fighters are going to be more likely to commit violence on civilians than cells that do not include foreign fighters. In order to make my argument, a most similar system qualitative design is implemented. Primary literature along with news sources gathered from NEXIS database are used to analyze three internal groups within al-Shabaab (2006 - present) during the Somali Civil War (1991-present); Jaysh al-Hisbah, The Amniyat, and Jaysh Ayman.

ГЕОПОЛІТИЧНА ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКА КРАЇН АФРИКАНСЬКОГО РОГУ

B a c k g r o u n d . The article provides a description of the Horn of Africa and examines recent security transformations for a number of states in the region. The Horn of Africa is a strategically important region for African and global trade and security. The organization of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development is the main platform for the settlement of complex interstate relations for the countries of the region. M e t h o d s . The following methods were used: analytical, historical, generalization. During the research, the authors relied on the principle of objectivism. R e s u l t s . In the region of the Horn of Africa, intense rivalry and competition between states is observed, which does not contribute to the consolidation and solution of security challenges, and as a result to the economic growth of the region as a whole. Numerous conflicts both within individual states of the Horn of Africa and between them undermine the stability of the region. Competition for the influence of extra regional powers also does not contribute to the consolidation of the states of the Horn of Africa. C o n c l u s i o n s . The conflictogenicity of the Horn of Africa develops according to the "spillover" effect, which emphasizes the interdependence of the security situation of the states of the region. Conflicts developing in different states of the region have a tendency to spread beyond the sovereign borders of the countries and have an impact on the destabilization of other states of the region. In particular, the long-term conflict in Somalia is affecting the destabilization of neighboring Kenya and Ethiopia. The conflicts in Sudan affect the security situation in South Sudan and Ethiopia, etc.

Rethinking Tests of the IO Effectiveness Hypothesis: Evidence from Counter-Piracy Efforts in the Global South

Abstract Scholars have long debated whether international organizations (IO) matter in international politics. Skeptics argue that power politics determine outcomes while champions see IOs as important, independently shaping outcomes and reshaping the structure of politics. Between these extremes, scholars have made numerous theoretical and empirical contributions to understanding under what conditions IOs make a difference. Yet, the fundamental question remains: when IOs identify a significant problem, can they solve it? We identify an underutilized analytical approach to understanding this broad debate. Specifically, we suggest scholars analyze this question by focusing on an IOs response to given crises to provide internal validity to claims throughout this debate. Furthermore, we encourage scholars to move beyond the oft-cited global or European cases to better incorporate insights from IOs in various parts of the world. Here, we explore the Southern African Development Community's attempt to coordinate member states’ maritime strategy to solve the emergent piracy problem caused by the Somali civil war. In identifying these new directions for research, we demonstrate that IOs, even under difficult circumstances, are effective actors in international politics.

The Genesis of the Civil War in Somalia: The Impact of Foreign Military Intervention on the Continent, written by Muuse Yuusuf War, Women and Post-Conflict Empowerment: Lessons from Sierra Leone, edited by Josephine Beoku-Betts &amp; Fredline A. M’Cormack-Hale

The Genesis of the Civil War in Somalia: The Impact of Foreign Military Intervention on the Continent, written by Muuse Yuusuf War, Women and Post-Conflict Empowerment: Lessons from Sierra Leone, edited by Josephine Beoku-Betts &amp; Fredline A. M’Cormack-Hale