Solvent-dependent Fluorescence Research Articles

Biologically active l-cysteine as a reducing/capping agent for controlled tuning of gold nanoparticles

In this communication, a greener methodology for the systematic tuning of spherically shaped gold nanoparticles is presented. Bioconjugated l-cysteine is used as a capping/reducing agent for the synthesis. The prepared nanoparticles are characterized by XRD, FTIR, UV-absorption, SEM and HRTEM measurements to study their properties. The five different sizes of gold nanoparticles ranging from 3.9 nm to 5.6 nm are successfully synthesized. The results of optical absorption show a shift in plasmon peak with the increase in particle size and FTIR measurements confirm a strong binding of l-cysteine molecules on gold surface. The effect of l-cysteine concentration is studied and these results reveal the formation of a new metal-organic complex. This material shows solvent dependent visible fluorescence and the fluorescent intensity follows an ordered sequence with dipole moment of the solvents used. Metal to ligand charge transfer is found the reason for this behavior. The present gold nanoparticles may find potential applications in various fields of biological/chemical sciences as biologically conjugated materials.

Solvent-dependent fluorescence enhancement and piezochromism of a carbazole-substituted naphthopyran

A novel carbazole-substituted naphthopyran, 3,3-bis-(4-carbazolylphenyl)-[3H]-naphtho[2,1-b]pyran (CzNP) was designed and synthesized. The new compound exhibited normal photochromism in dichloromethane solution and the UV irradiation did not influence its fluorescence. On the contrary, the fluorescence of CzNP in N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) was intensively enhanced to 29 times after 60min of the UV irradiation and this enhanced fluorescence can be quenched by addition of triethylamine (TEA). The study of enhanced extent of fluorescence of CzNP in solvents with different polarities and in mixed solvents demonstrated that the enhanced fluorescence is dependent on the polarity of solvents. The larger the polarity of solvent was, the stronger was the fluorescence of CzNP. CzNP also exhibited piezochromic performance and the pressure led to the cleavage of the C–O bond of pyran ring.

Explosives sensing by using electron-rich supramolecular polymers: role of intermolecular hydrogen bonding in significant enhancement of sensitivity.

We demonstrate here that supramolecular interactions enhance the sensitivity towards detection of electron-deficient nitro-aromatic compounds (NACs) over discrete analogues. NACs are the most commonly used explosive ingredients and are common constituents of many unexploded landmines used during World War II. In this study, we have synthesised a series of pyrene-based polycarboxylic acids along with their corresponding discrete esters. Due to the electron richness and the fluorescent behaviour of the pyrene moiety, all the compounds act as sensors for electron-deficient NACs through a fluorescence quenching mechanism. A Stern-Volmer quenching constant determination revealed that the carboxylic acids are more sensitive than the corresponding esters towards NACs in solution. The high sensitivity of the acids was attributed to supramolecular polymer formation through hydrogen bonding in the case of the acids, and the enhancement mechanism is based on an exciton energy migration upon excitation along the hydrogen-bond backbone. The presence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding in the acids in solution was established by solvent-dependent fluorescence studies and dynamic light scattering (DLS) experiments. In addition, the importance of intermolecular hydrogen bonds in solid-state sensing was further explored by scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM) experiments at the liquid-solid interface, in which structures of self-assembled monolayer of the acids and the corresponding esters were compared. The sensitivity tests revealed that these supramolecular sensors can even detect picric acid and trinitrotoluene in solution at levels as low as parts per trillion (ppt), which is much below the recommended permissible level of these constituents in drinking water.

Triphenylamine based new Schiff base ligand: Solvent dependent selective fluorescence sensing of Mg2 + and Fe3 + ions

A new Schiff base ligand based on triphenylamine (1) was synthesized and demonstrated solvent dependent selective fluorescence sensing of Mg2+ and Fe3+ ions up to ppm level (10−6M). Highly selective turn-on fluorescence for Mg2+ was observed in DMSO as well as DMF (λmax=506nm, Φ=0.007 (1), 0.17 (1+Mg2+)). Interestingly, in THF, 1 showed strong turn-on fluorescence for Fe3+ (blue, λmax=460nm, Φ=0.064) as well as for Mg2+ (greenish yellow). Interference studies confirm that Ca2+ that strongly competes with Mg2+ sensing had negligible interference. The practical application of 1 for selective fluorescence sensing of Mg2+ from different water samples has also been demonstrated.

Synthesis, molecular structure and photoluminescence properties of 1,2-diphenyl-4-(3-methoxyphenyl)-1,3-cyclopentadiene

1,2-Diphenyl-4-(3-methoxyphenyl)-1,3-cyclopentadiene (DPMPCP) was synthesized via aldol condensation reaction followed by cyclization and dehydration reaction. Its structure was characterized by 1H NMR, 13C NMR spectra, high-resolution mass spectrometry and single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The UV–vis absorption and photoluminescence spectra of DPMPCP in solution and aggregation state were studied. It shows solvent-dependent fluorescence emission and aggregation-induced emission enhancement (AIEE) characteristic when DPMPCP aggregated in water/acetonitrile mixture or in crystals. The crystal structure analysis reveals combination effects of J-aggregation molecule stacking and restriction of intramolecular rotation by intermolecular interactions on AIEE. Additionally, the thermal stability, electrochemical property and DFT calculation of DPMPCP were investigated.

Charge transfer optical absorption and fluorescence emission of 4-(9-acridyl)julolidine from long-range-corrected time dependent density functional theory in polarizable continuum approach

A long-range-corrected time-dependent density functional theory (LC-TDDFT) in combination with polarizable continuum model (PCM) have been applied to study charge transfer (CT) optical absorption and fluorescence emission energies basing on parameterized LC-BLYP xc-potential. The molecule of 4-(9-acridyl)julolidine selected for this study represents typical CT donor–acceptor dye with strongly solvent dependent optical absorption and fluorescence emission spectra. The result of calculations are compared with experimental spectra reported in the literature to derive an optimal value of the model screening parameter ω. The first absorption band appears to be quite well predictable within DFT/TDDFT/PCM with the screening parameter ω to be solvent independent (ω≈0.245Bohr−1) whereas the fluorescence emission exhibits a strong dependence on the range separation with ω-value varying on a rising solvent polarity from about 0.225 to 0.151Bohr−1. Dipolar properties of the initial state participating in the electronic transition have crucial impact on the effective screening.

Design and synthesis of laser-activatable tetrazoles for a fast and fluorogenic red-emitting 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction.

The design and synthesis of a new class of laser light activatable tetrazoles with extended π-systems is reported. Upon 405 nm laser light irradiation, these bithiophene-substituted tetrazoles underwent extremely fast 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions with dimethyl fumarate with second-order rate constants approaching 4000 M(-1) s(-1). The resulting pyrazoline cycloadducts exhibited solvent-dependent red fluorescence, making these tetrazoles potentially useful as fluorogenic probes for detecting alkenes in vivo.

Synthesis, crystal Structures and aggregation-induced emission enhancement of aryl-substituted cyclopentadiene derivatives

A series of cyclopentadiene derivates, namely, 1,2,4-triphenylcyclopenta-1,3-diene (1), 1,2-diphenyl-4-(p-methoxyphenyl)cyclopenta-1,3-diene (2) and 1,2-di(p-methoxyphenyl)-4-phenylcyclopenta-1,3-diene (3), were synthesized and their photoluminescence properties in solutions and aggregation state were investigated. Different photoluminescence properties of 1–3 were tuned by changing types and replace position of substituent groups. These cyclopentadiene derivates display solvent-dependent fluorescence emissions and typical aggregation-induced emission enhancement (AIEE) characteristics. The crystal structure analysis reveals that intermolecular C–H…π interactions and X-aggregation molecule stacking have a dramatic effect on the photoluminescent properties of 1–3. Additionally, the DFT calculations of these compounds were investigated.

Unique solvent-dependent fluorescence of nitro-group-containing naphthalene derivatives with weak donor–strong acceptor system

We synthesized nitro-group-containing π-conjugated naphthalene derivatives with a weak donor–strong acceptor system and investigated their photophysical properties. The nitro group was introduced into naphthalene through the phenyl or phenylethynyl moiety at the C2 and C7 positions as the strong acceptor moiety, and a methoxy group was introduced into naphthalene directly at the position opposite to the nitro group, as a weak donor moiety. While 2-(4-nitrophenyl)naphthalene did not show fluorescence in various solvents, 2-methoxy-6-(4-nitrophenyl)naphthalene showed fluorescence in weakly polar solvents (ΦF=0.11 in CH2Cl2), with a large Stokes shift (Δν=12,000cm−1). Additionally, 2-methoxy-6-(4-nitrophenyl)naphthalene did not show fluorescence in polar solvents (acetonitrile) and non-polar solvents (toluene). This unique solvent-dependent fluorescence is remarkable for environmental fluorescence sensor applications.

Diaminotriazine substituted diphenyl ether: reversible structural transformation and solvent dependent solid state fluorescence

The effect of molecular shape and position of hydrogen bonding functionality in the solid state structural self-assembly was investigated using diaminotriazine substituted diphenyl ether based positional isomers (1–5). The molecular shape was modulated by changing diaminotriazine position that produced channel supramolecular structures in 1, 3 and 5. There exists a direct correlation between the molecular shape and three dimensional structures; more linear molecules resulted in close-packing whereas molecules with a labyrinthine topology formed a channel structure. Supramolecular aspects pertaining to the influence of solvent of crystallization in structure formation and reversible structural transformation in solid state were also explored. 1–5 exhibited tunable solid state fluorescence (λmax = 437–496 nm) depending on the diaminotriazine substitutional position and 3 showed solvent-dependent solid state fluorescence. The present study describes the generation of a supramolecular channel structure with functional properties such as tunable fluorescence by varying the position of hydrogen bond functionality and solvent of crystallization.

Synthesis and characterization of diazafluorene-based oligofluorenes and polyfluorene

Diazafluorene (DAF) has a similar configuration to a fluorene unit except that two carbon atoms are replaced with nitrogen atoms, offering an ideal model of supramolecular conjugated polymers to investigate the structure–property relationship. Herein, a series of DAF-based oligofluorenes and polyfluorenes, including NFF, NF2F, F2NF, PFO-NO, PFO-N5, PFO-N15 and PFO-N50, have been synthesized by Suzuki and/or Yamamoto polymerization. All dioctyldiazafluorene-based copolymers show improved solubility, high quantum efficiency and good thermal stability. The 4,5-diazafluorenone (DAFone)-based oligomers exhibit solvent-dependent fluorescence and DAF-based copolymers show an optical response with a large red-shift (ca. 40–60 nm) of the absorption peak when they were protonated with trifluoroacetic acid. Their photoluminescent properties have also been obviously tuned by coordinating different metal ions to the polymers. DAF-based conjugated polymers are potential supramolecular polymer semiconductors for thin film electronics.

Nondestructive Photoluminescence Read‐Out by Intramolecular Electron Transfer in a Perylene Bisimide‐Diarylethene Dyad

A novel, highly stable photochromic dyad 3 based on a perylene bisimide (PBI) fluorophore and a diarylethene (DAE) photochrome was synthesized and the optical and photophysical properties of this dyad were studied in detail by steady-state and time-resolved ultrafast spectroscopy. This photochromic dyad can be switched reversibly by UV-light irradiation of its ring-open form 3 o leading to the ring-closed form 3 c, and back reaction of 3 c to 3 o by irradiation with visible light. Solvent-dependent fluorescence studies revealed that the emission of ring-closed form 3 c is drastically quenched in solvents of medium (e.g., chloroform) to high (e.g., acetone) polarities, while the emission of the ring-open form 3 o is appreciably quenched only in highly polar solvents like DMF. The strong fluorescence quenching of 3 c is attributed to a photoinduced electron-transfer (PET) process from the excited PBI unit to ring-closed DAE moiety, as this process is thermodynamically highly favorable with a Gibbs free energy value of -0.34 eV in dichloromethane. The electron-transfer mechanism for the fluorescence quenching of ring-closed 3 c is substantiated by ultrafast transient measurements in dichloromethane and acetone, revealing stabilization of charge-separated states of 3 c in these solvents. Our results reported here show that the new photochromic dyad 3 has potential for nondestructive read-out in write/read/erase fluorescent memory systems.

Facile synthesis and self-assembly of diazafluorenone-based p–n (donor–acceptor) organic semiconductors

A mild and effective method to prepare 2,7-dibromo-4,5-diazafluoren-9-one (3) has been described involving tandem oxidation and rearrangement reactions. Diazafluorenone-based donor–acceptor (p–n) molecules via stille coupling reactions exhibit solvent-dependent fluorescence and excellent self-assembly behaviors at the solid–liquid interface according to the characterization of scanning tunneling microscopy (STM).

Solvent-dependent conformational and fluorescence change of an N-phenylbenzohydroxamic acid derivative bearing two pyrene moieties

The conformation of N-phenylbenzohydroxamic acid has been reported to change depending on the solvent properties. Here, we newly synthesized N-phenylbenzohydroxamic acid derivative, which contains two pyrene moieties separated from the phenyl rings by ethylene linkers. It showed solvent-dependent conformational change, and its fluorescence was also solvent-dependent, that is, only monomer fluorescence of pyrene was observed in DMSO or DMF, whereas the excimer fluorescence was observed in CH2Cl2 or CHCl3. Thus, the structural characteristics could be converted to fluorescence change as output, which would be a good candidate as a fluorescent sensor.

Hydrochromic fluorescence of organo-boronium-avobenzone complexes

Commercially available avobenzone readily reacts with boron trichloride or tribromide to afford boron-bisavobenzone salts. The complexes were found to exhibit unusual solvent-dependent fluorescence in solution and hydrochromic fluorescence in the solid state: a blue-to-orange emission colour change was observed upon water vapour exposure. The phenomenon was likely caused by interference of the boron coordination sphere by water molecules.

Solvent-dependent intramolecular charge transfer dual fluorescence of p-dimethylaminobenzanilide bearing steric ortho,ortho-dimethyl substituents at amido aniline

Intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) dual fluorescence was observed in various organic solvents with p-dimethylaminobenzanilide (DMBA) derivatives bearing ortho-methyl (DMOMBA) and ortho,ortho-dimethyl (DMDMBA) substituents at amido aniline moiety. Ab initio calculation and absorption spectral data indicated that high steric hindrance was introduced by the ortho,ortho-dimethyl substitutions. It was found that, with DMDMBA, the CT emission initially shifted to the red with increasing solvent polarity from cyclohexane (CHX, 480 nm) to diethyl ether (DEE, 520 nm), similar to those of DMBA derivatives with the ortho-, meta- or para-methyl substitutions at amido aniline moiety. However, there is a characteristic blue-shift of the long wavelength emission between DEE and tetrahydrofuran (THF, 424 nm) then a bathochromic shift again in highly polar solvent acetonitrile (ACN, 484 nm). The unusual solvent-dependent CT emission was ascribed to two competitive CT channels. One is benzanilide (BA)-like CT, whose CT reaction occurs from amido aniline to benzoyl moiety in nonpolar solvent CHX and DEE; the other one is p-dimethylaminobenzamide (DMABA)-like, whose CT reaction occurs from dimethylamino to benzanilide moiety in highly polar solvent THF and ACN. These findings revealed the steric effect plays an important role in the ICT process, which may alter the properties of the electron donor and/or acceptor, but also change the reaction potential.

Fluorescence of methylated derivatives of hydroxyphenylimidazopyridine. Resolution of strongly overlapping spectra and a new ESIPT dye showing very efficient radiationless deactivation

The ground- and excited-state behaviour of the isomeric species 2-(2'-methoxyphenyl)imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (1-OMe) and 2-(2'-hydroxyphenyl)-4-methylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (1-NMe) in neutral and acid media has been studied by UV-vis absorption spectroscopy, steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy. The new dye 1-NMe is non-fluorescent in neutral media except in trifluoroethanol, where it shows a very weak fluorescence. 1-NMe also exhibits highly solvent-dependent fluorescence intensity in acidic media. We propose that the neutral species experiences a fast excited-state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT), relaxing afterwards by intramolecular twisting associated with internal charge transfer (TICT) and subsequent very fast internal conversion of the proton-transferred TICT structure. The behaviour of 1-NMe in acidic media is explained by the existence of a ground-state tautomeric equilibrium between species with intramolecular hydrogen bonds N-HOH and NHO. The first type of tautomers dissociates at the hydroxyl group in water and ethanol, but fluoresces in acetonitrile and trifluoroethanol due to the inability of these solvents to accept the proton. The second type of tautomers is non-emissive due to fast radiationless deactivation through an ESIPT-TICT process. The fluorescence of 1-OMe was investigated in neutral and acidic media, demonstrating the photobasic character of the pyridine nitrogen. A ground-state equilibrium between pyridinium and imidazolium cations was found for this species, showing overlapping absorption and fluorescence spectra. We devised a method to resolve the spectra by applying principal component global analysis to a series of excitation spectra taken at different emission wavelengths, which allowed estimation of the equilibrium constant between the cations.

One-pot synthesis of 2-bromo-4,5-diazafluoren-9-one via a tandem oxidation–bromination-rearrangement of phenanthroline and its hammer-shaped donor–acceptor organic semiconductors

An unexpected one-pot tandem procedure of 2-bromo-4,5-diazafluoren-9-one starting from phenanthroline with a yield of up to 50% has been described. The conversion mechanism involves three consecutive oxidation, bromination, and rearrangement reactions. A series of its hammer-shaped donor–acceptor organic semiconductors with solvent-dependent fluorescence have also been constructed via Ullman and/or Friedel–Crafts reaction. Diazafluorenes (DAFs) and derivatives are regarded as promising building blocks or candidates for donor–acceptor organic semiconductors.

Design, Synthesis and Characterisation of a Fluorescently Labelled CyPLOS Ionophore

A novel fluorescently labelled synthetic ionophore, based on a cyclic phosphate-linked disaccharide (CyPLOS) backbone and decorated with four tetraethylene glycol tails carrying dansyl units, has been synthesised in 12 steps in 26% overall yield. The key intermediate in the synthetic strategy is a novel glucoside building block, serving through its 2- and 3-hydroxy groups as the anchor point for flexible tetraethylene glycol tentacles with reactive azido moieties at their ends. To test the versatility of this glucoside scaffold, it was preliminarily functionalised with a set of diverse probes--as fluorescent, redox-active or hydrophobic tags--either by reduction of the azides followed by condensation with activated carboxylic acid derivatives, or by a direct coupling with a terminal alkyne in a Cu(I)-promoted 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition. Tagging of the monomeric building block with dansyl residues allowed us to prepare a fluorescent, amphiphilic macrocycle, which was investigated for its propensity to self-aggregate in CDCl(3)--studied by means of concentration-dependent (31)P NMR spectroscopy experiments--and in aqueous solution, in which combined dynamic light scattering (DLS) and small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) measurements provided a detailed physico-chemical analysis of the self-assembled systems, mainly organised in the form of large vesicles. Its ion-transport properties through phospholipid bilayers, determined by HPTS fluorescence assays, showed this compound to be more active than the previously synthesised CyPLOS congeners. Solvent-dependent fluorescence changes for the labelled ionophore in liposome suspension established that the dansyl moieties are dispersed in environments with polarity intermediate between those of CH(2)Cl(2) and propan-2-ol, suggesting that the CyPLOS tentacles infiltrate the mid-polar region of the membranes.

Photophysical Studies of Dipolar Organic Dyes That Feature a 1,3‐Cyclohexadiene Conjugated Linkage: The Implication of a Twisted Intramolecular Charge‐Transfer State on the Efficiency of Dye‐Sensitized Solar Cells

A detailed study of the synthesis and photophysical properties of a new series of dipolar organic photosensitizers that feature a 1,3-cyclohexadiene moiety integrated into the π-conjugated structural backbone has been carried out. Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) based on these structurally simple dyes have shown appreciable photo-to-electrical energy conversion efficiency, with the highest one up to 4.03 %. Solvent-dependent fluorescence studies along with the observation of dual emission on dye 4 b and single emission on dyes 4 a and 32 suggest that dye 4 b possesses a highly polar emissive excited state located at a lower-energy position than at the normal emissive excited state. A detailed photophysical investigation in conjunction with computational studies confirmed the twisted intramolecular charge-transfer (TICT) state to be the lowest emissive excited state for dye 4 b in polar solvents. The relaxation from higher-charge-injection excited states to the lowest TICT state renders the back-electron transfer process a forbidden one and significantly retards the charge recombination to boost the photocurrent. The electrochemical impedance under illumination and transient photovoltage decay studies showed smaller charge resistance and longer electron lifetime in 4 b-based DSSC compared to the DSSCs with reference dyes 4 a and 32, which further illustrates the positive influence of the TICT state on the performance of DSSCs.