The thermal structure of the Earth beneath Greenland reflects the tectonic history of the region and impacts ice sheet evolution due to surface heat flow and the influence of temperature on Earth rheology, and thus glacial isostatic adjustment. We present results from a probabilistic joint inversion of multiple satellite and land-based datasets to determine the thermal structure of the lithosphere and upper mantle beneath Greenland and consider the implications for our understanding of the tectonic history, isostatic deformation, and Greenland ice sheet evolution. Passage of Greenland over the Iceland hotspot is well known but there remains considerable debate on the trajectory of this path. Our findings reveal strong lateral variability in thermal structure that is consistent with reconstructions of a west-to-east hotspot track across central Greenland. Applying our temperature model to infer mechanical properties of the solid Earth reveals viscosity variations reaching 3 orders of magnitude in the upper mantle. We generate an ensemble of plausible 3D viscosity models and produce quality fits to both paleo sea level and contemporary vertical land motion datasets. This result supports the veracity of our temperature model and questions the need for a large component of transient deformation to explain the observations. Our regional temperature and viscosity models can be used to develop improved reconstructions and understanding of past Greenland ice sheet changes and explore the influence of 3D Earth structure on simulating ice sheet and sea level evolution in the past and future.

Abstract Uncorrected long‐wavelength contributions remain a major limitation for interpreting InSAR time‐series over large areas (>100 km). Among them, the ionosphere can impact InSAR measurements across various timescales, potentially biasing secular velocity estimates. We use Global Ionosphere Maps (GIMs) to predict ionospheric effects for >15,000 Sentinel‐1 acquisitions in France, Tibet, and Central Andes. We evaluate GIM‐based corrections using phase ramps (planar functions fitted to interferograms) as proxies for long‐wavelength signals, enabling analysis of their temporal evolution. After correcting for solid Earth tides and oceanic tidal loading, GIM‐derived predictions show a strong temporal consistency with observed ramps, effectively capturing seasonal and multi‐year fluctuations with amplitudes of 0.2 mm/km. The highest‐resolution GIM also corrects part of the strong daily fluctuations of along‐track ramps observed on ascending tracks over equatorial regions. These corrections reduce ramp rate uncertainty and improve agreement with GNSS, paving the way toward direct InSAR measurement of tectonic plate motion.

The geoscience education research community has invested in research of students’ understanding of large magnitudes as it applies to deep time and worked to apply findings to improve teaching and learning in geology courses. Building on this research and encouraged by efforts to expand beyond studies of solid Earth science, we posit that fluid-Earth sciences such as oceanography and atmospheric science require facility with small numbers and suggest that parallel investigations of students’ understanding of small numbers would broadly support geoscience education, while adding to emerging cognitive science theory of how individuals conceptualize and estimate small magnitudes. We reviewed textbooks from oceanography, atmospheric science, and geology as proxies for small number use in introductory courses. We found in the introductory level textbooks we reviewed, oceanography and atmospheric science use small numbers and small units at a rate of two to three times that found in geology. We conducted two number line experiments (Experiment 1, N = 185; Experiment 2, N = 80) to identify student errors with small number estimation and compared error patterns to large number estimation and previous work. Our findings include a pattern of overestimation at smaller values and underestimation at larger values within small magnitude categories. These patterns are consistent with less variability when estimating familiar magnitudes and greater variability when estimating unfamiliar magnitudes. We conclude that learning about small scale Earth processes may be as challenging for students as learning about geological time scales and propose that investigations into student understanding of small numbers are likely to yield education and cognitive science insights as valuable as those from prior investigations of large numbers.

The multi-anvil experimental technique is widely used in solid Earth and planetary sciences, as well as material sciences, for the generating high-pressure (up to 120GPa) and high-temperature (above 3500K) conditions in a relatively large sample volume (typically 1-10mm3). Despite its ability to achieve extreme conditions, determining the exact pressure in a multi-anvil experiment is challenging. It is typically estimated using pressure calibration curves; however, constructing pressure calibration curves requires conducting numerous preliminary pressure calibration experiments. In this study, we developed a convenient experimental technique for room-temperature pressure calibration by modifying the cell assembly design, in which multiple calibrants (with a theoretical maximum of seven calibrants) can be loaded within a single assembly. Consequently, multiple data points for a pressure calibration curve can be acquired in one experimental run. This technique significantly reduces the effort required to construct a pressure calibration curve for multi-anvil experiments.

In atomic gravimeter, matter-wave interference of atoms is achieved using a three-pulse sequence to generate atomic interference fringes, and gravitational acceleration is measured by extracting phase information from these fringes. Given the high noise sensitivity of atomic gravimeter interference fringes, traditional fitting methods, including Least Squares (LS) and Extended Kalman Filter (EKF), exhibit limitations in fitting accuracy and stability. With the continuous improvement in measurement precision of gravitational acceleration, enhancing fringe fitting precision becomes particularly crucial. To address this challenge, this study proposes an orthogonal-distance-driven Adaptive Cuckoo Search (ACS) algorithm for interference fringe fitting. The method aims to minimize orthogonal distances through the synergistic integration of dynamic step-size scaling factor adjustment strategy, hybrid Lévy flight distribution parameters, elite disturbance replacement strategy, and nest reset mechanism, significantly improving the global search capability of the cuckoo search algorithm. Validation through both simulated and experimental measurement data demonstrates superior fitting accuracy. After processing ∼46h of empirical gravitational acceleration data, the ACS-derived mean estimate of gravitational acceleration exhibited minimal residual amplitude relative to theoretical solid Earth tides-approximately 5.0% lower than LS and ∼28.79% lower than EKF. This research validates the effectiveness of the proposed method, providing a novel research framework and solution for atomic gravimeter interference fringe fitting.

Abstract Whether seismicity is correlated with the solid Earth tides has been a longstanding problem, but the findings remain ambiguous. The attempts at its resolution shed light on the physical properties and processes controlling earthquake triggering. The recent surge in earthquake data and advancement in detection techniques provide an opportunity to revisit this problem. We utilize a 40‐year Southern California Seismic Network catalog and a 10‐year Quake Template Matching catalog to explore the tidal modulation in Southern California. Results indicate that the correlations between earthquakes and tides vary with location. Regions where seismicity is significantly modulated by tidal stresses have relatively low effective background normal stress (20–155 kPa), which are primarily associated with geothermal locations. Additionally, deeper earthquakes in certain areas have a stronger correlation with tides. These phenomena suggest that faults with lower effective background stress might be more sensitive to tidal modulation. Furthermore, earthquakes of specific types (strike‐slip and thrust) in certain areas are more likely to correlate with tides, suggesting that different fault types experience different tidal loading amplitudes. Our study suggests that earthquake catalogs covering longer time spans with smaller completeness magnitude are required for more robust tidal modulation analysis, and the modulation of seismicity by tides provides a probe to measure the effective background normal stress on the faults at depth.

The contribution of the Antarctic Ice Sheet to barystatic sea-level rise could be as high as eight metres around 2300 but remains deeply uncertain. Ice sheet retreat causes bedrock uplift, which can exert a stabilising effect on the grounding line. Yet, sea-level projections exclude bedrock adjustment, use simplified Earth structures or omit the uncertainty in climate response and Earth structure. We show that the grounding line retreat is delayed by 50 to 130 years and the barystatic sea-level contribution reduced by 9–23% when the heterogeneity of the solid Earth is included in a coupled ice – bedrock model under different emission scenarios till 2500. The effect of the solid Earth feedback in ice sheet projections can be twice as large as the uncertainty due to differences between climate models. We emphasise that realistic Earth structures should be considered when projecting the Antarctic contribution to barystatic sea-level rise on centennial time scales.

The classical approach in Earth sciences has often involved the compartmentalized study of its constituent spheres: the solid Earth (geosphere), the fluid envelopes (atmosphere and hydrosphere), and the biosphere. However, the past few decades have witnessed a paradigm shift towards a holistic, systems-level understanding of our planet. This review article synthesizes current knowledge on the dynamic couplings between geoscience-encompassing geology, geomorphology, and tectonics-and the fluid dynamics of the atmosphere and oceans. We explore how solid Earth processes, such as mountain building, volcanic activity, and seafloor spreading, fundamentally dictate climatic patterns, ocean circulation, and biogeochemical cycles over geological timescales. Conversely, we examine the powerful feedback mechanisms through which atmospheric and oceanic forces-including weathering, erosion, and ice-sheet dynamics-sculpt the terrestrial and submarine landscape, modulate magmatic processes, and influence the very pace of plate tectonics. Through the lens of integrated Earth system science, we analyze key couplings including the tectonic-climate connection, biogeochemical cycling of carbon and nutrients, and the co-evolution of life and the planet's physical environment. The article highlights the critical role of modern observational technologies, advanced numerical modeling, and paleoclimatological proxies in quantifying these complex interactions. Understanding Earth as a deeply interconnected system is not only fundamental to unraveling its past and predicting its future but is also imperative for addressing the anthropogenic perturbations currently reshaping the planet.

Editorial: Sustainability and environmental considerations in mining: from deep-sea to solid earth

Atmospheric electric conductivity is considered an important factor affecting the propagation and coupling of seismic disturbance signals in the lithosphere, atmosphere, and ionosphere. During the preparation of an earthquake, substances released from the solid Earth into the atmosphere may cause changes in atmospheric electric conductivity, thereby affecting atmospheric electrical parameters. However, the specific substances that cause these changes and their extent are not fully understood. This hinders our understanding of the mechanisms that generate ionospheric anomalies before earthquakes and how earthquakes affect atmospheric electrical parameters, hindering earthquake prediction. However, atmospheric electric conductivity is usually only studied by meteorologists, and there are few continuous fixed-point observation data, with observations during earthquakes being almost non-existent. To address this gap, we developed a wide-range, high-sensitivity, high-sampling-rate, and sustainable atmospheric electric conductivity meter for seismic observation based on the Gerdien sensor and tested it in an environment with high radon concentration. The experimental results show that the Pearson correlation coefficient between radon and atmospheric electric conductivity exceeds 0.99, and the significance is less than 0.001. This indicates that radon does cause changes in atmospheric electric conductivity, and they have a strong positive correlation. High temperatures may increase the thermal motion of molecules, resulting in discrete measurement results. Finally, after analyzing the data, we suggest that high concentrations of radon enhance the ionization of the air, leading to an increase in ion pairs. This, in turn, results in a larger ion recombination coefficient. This process may cause deviations in the calculation of theoretical atmospheric electric conductivity based on radon concentration.

Abstract We estimate the solid Earth's elastic response and change in equivalent water thickness produced by 983 global natural lakes and artificial reservoirs. Using the altimetry and LandSat based lake water storage compilation of Yao et al. (2023b, https://zenodo.org/records/7946043 ), we assemble the following data products: (a) change in water volume for 287 natural lakes and 696 artificial reservoirs interpolated to be continuous from October 1992 to October 2020, (b) maps of change in lake water storage each month, (c) lake‐generated change in equivalent water thickness as seen by Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) in spherical harmonic coefficients and 3‐degree mass concentration elements (mascons), (d) lake‐generated east, north, and up components of elastic displacement at 19,827 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) sites that the Nevada Geodetic Laboratory analyzes. Removing estimates of lake water storage reduces the variance of 79% of the 333 affected 3‐degree mascons in JPL's mascon solution, with a mean reduction of 2 cm (7%). In northern North America and Asia, lake water storage is predicted to reach its seasonal maximum 4–6 months after observed terrestrial water storage from GRACE, which can increase GRACE's variance when lake water is removed. Removing lake‐generated elastic displacements from GNSS station displacements reduces the weighted root mean square of residuals relative to a trended sinusoid with a seasonal period by an average of 4 mm (12%). Applications of GNSS displacements observations, such as glacial isostatic adjustment modeling and tectonic reconstructions can be biased due to lake water loading in the case of stations with short records and large lake water changes.

Existence of a heterogeneous attenuation structure in northeast Japan has long been documented. Despite this, attenuation structure around the plate boundary in the offshore region could not be examined thoroughly owing to a lack of data. After the 2011 Mw 9.1 Tohoku-oki earthquake, a seafloor network of 150 observatories, known as S-net, was established spanning the entire Japan Trench subduction zone to reinforce infrastructure for earthquake and tsunami early warnings. In the present research, we computed S-wave Fourier spectra of accelerograms from the seafloor and land stations and applied the principle of seismic tomography to retrieve three-dimensional attenuation structure (Qs). Our results showed a prominent low-to-moderate Qs zone near the upper surface of the oceanic plate in the seafloor area, most likely indicating the presence of water-rich oceanic crust and subducted sediments. We also found that the Qs structures in both onshore and offshore regimes are moderately to strongly frequency-dependent. A comprehensive understanding of the frequency-dependent behavior of attenuation structure remains elusive. We anticipate that the findings presented here will contribute to resolving pertinent issues in the field of solid earth science and to a deeper understanding of earthquake hazards in subduction zones.

Recent studies of the likelihood of intelligent life in our galaxy suggest that we may be the only technological civilization. This imposes a profound responsibility on us to safeguard the resilient future of intelligence and technology in the galaxy. Therefore, ensuring that our civilization endures for millions of years is a prime scientific and moral priority. Our current influence on Earth’s systems is undeniable, yet it remains superficial compared to the planet’s long-term biogeodynamical evolution processes. By studying Earth’s deep past and thinking on geological timescales, we can learn how to better navigate the deep future. At present, a guiding science-based paradigm for long-term survival of human civilization is missing and the research of the Earth-Life-Human system future focuses on relatively short-term timescales (decades, centuries). Here, we formulate the missing paradigm by presenting four core theses and studying their cultural, scientific and societal consequences. We begin with our motivation---that ours may be the only technologically advanced civilization in the galaxy and thus is precious. Next, we explore the greatest implication of our uniqueness---that we have a duty to ensure the long-term survival of our civilization, for the sake of the galaxy as well as our descendants. We then explore ways to do this, by consciously aligning civilization with solid Earth tempos and cycles. Finally, we propose “Future Dynamics”---a new interdisciplinary field focused on ensuring civilization’s long-term survival by defining, modeling and quantifying potential future trajectories of the coupled Earth-Life-Human system over geological timescales.

Abstract. Prediction of mineral phase assemblages is essential to better understand the dynamics of the solid Earth, such as metamorphic processes, magmatism and the formation of mineral ore deposits. While recently developed thermodynamic databases allow the prediction of stable phase mineral assemblages for an increasing range of pressure, temperature and compositional spaces, the increasing complexity of these databases results in a significant increase of computational cost, hindering our ability to perform realistic models of reactive fluid/magma transport. Presently, prediction of stable phase equilibrium in complex systems is therefore largely limited by how efficiently single phase minimization can be performed, as more than 75 % of the total computational time is generally dedicated to individual solution phase minimization. This limitation becomes critical for non-ideal solution phase models that involve both a large number of chemical components, and mixing on a large number of sites, resulting in many inequality constraints of the form 0≤xlM≤1, where xlM is the fraction of element l mixing on site M. Here, we present a general reformulation of complex non-ideal solution phases from the thermodynamic database of Holland et al. (2018), which comprises equations of state for multiple mineral solid solutions appearing in magmatic systems, as well as multicomponent silicate melt and aqueous fluid phases. Using a nullspace approach, non-linear inequality constraints governing the site fractions are transformed into equality constraints, and the resulting problem is turned into an bound-constrained optimization problem, subsequently optimized using efficient gradient-based methods. To test our formulation, we apply it to several equations of state for solution phases known for their complexity and compare the results of our approach against classical optimization algorithms supporting inequality constraints. We find that the the Broyden-Fletcher-Goldfarb-Shanno (BFGS) algorithm yields by far the best performance and stability with respect to the other investigated methods, improving the minimization time of individual solution phase by a factor ≥10. We estimate that our new approach can improve the computational time of stable phase equilibrium by a factor ≥5, thus potentially allowing to model realistic reactive fluid/magmatic systems by directly integrating phase equilibrium calculations in multiphase thermomechanical codes.

Abstract. Grounding line retreat in the Amundsen Sea Embayment (ASE) is expected to drive the largest Antarctic contribution to sea-level rise over the coming centuries. In this region, low mantle viscosity accelerates the solid Earth's viscoelastic response to ice mass loss, leading to a stabilizing feedback via bedrock uplift and local sea-level fall: effects governed by gravitation, rotation, and deformation (GRD) processes. These stabilizing effects can be enhanced by the presence of ridges and confinements, which have been identified in ASE but can only be represented by using high model resolutions. Here, we investigate how coupled ice sheet–GRD simulations respond to (i) ice sheet model resolution, (ii) GRD spatial resolution, and (iii) the coupling interval between the two systems. We consider two model setups with distinct mesh structures, surface mass balance (SMB) forcings, and basal melt parametrizations. Our findings underscore the importance of feedback mechanisms at kilometer scales and decadal to sub-decadal timescales. Resolving bedrock topography at 2 km instead of 1 km raises the projected sea level by 7.1 % in 2100 and lowers it by 18.8 % in 2350. In our most conservative setup, we find that bedrock uplift delays grounding line retreat by up to 30 years on ridges located 34 and 75 km upstream of Thwaites Glacier's current grounding line. This mechanism plays a key role in reducing Thwaites' sea-level contribution by up to 53.1 % in 2350. These findings underscore the critical need to reduce uncertainties in bedrock topography.

SUMMARY The South American continent (SAC), a region of pronounced geodynamic and hydrological activity, exhibits crustal deformation and gravity field anomalies driven by the interplay of tectonic forces and surface/subsurface mass redistribution. While previous studies have mainly focused on gravity changes driven by terrestrial water storage (TWS), mass variations of the solid Earth remain inadequately addressed. In this study, we resolve deep-seated mass transport Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite gravimetry, hydrological model outputs, GPS-derived vertical crustal motions and glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) correction. Our results reveal an internal mass variation of 0.21 ± 0.45 cm yr−1 in equivalent water height (EWH), independent of surface hydrological contributions. Interpreting this signal as predominantly driven by crust–mantle boundary (Moho) displacements, we estimate an average Moho depth uplift rate of 0.37 ± 0.80 cm yr−1 across SAC, based on the crust–mantle density contrast. The Moho interface depth variations exhibit significant spatial heterogeneity. Through uncertainty analysis, four distinct regions (A, B, C and D) are identified: Region A exhibits Moho uplift and Region B exhibits subsidence, with part contributions from the isostatic adjustment. Key uncertainties in these estimates stem from sedimentation effects and the accuracy of current observations or models. Subsidence in Region C and uplift in Region D are related to the co-seismic and post-seismic effects of the 2010 Chile earthquake. These findings underscore the significance of solid Earth mass flux in active continental regions and unravel the mechanisms governing crust–Moho mass redistribution.

Abstract Ice‐mass change induces regionally varying patterns of sea‐level change due to gravitational, rotational, and deformational (GRD) effects, which in turn influence marine‐based ice stability in Antarctica. For improved projection of the Antarctic Ice Sheet (AIS), there is a need for including GRD effects in modeling and improving understanding of basin‐by‐basin sensitivity of ice evolution to GRD effects under a range of climate scenarios. We couple a high‐resolution, higher‐order ice‐sheet model with a 1D global sea‐level model that fully captures GRD effects, and simulate ice evolution in Antarctica under the Ice Sheet Model Intercomparison Project for CMIP6 experiments. We perform two sets of coupled simulations incorporating 1D Maxwell solid Earth structure suitable for West and East Antarctica and show that the Amundsen Sea Embayment (ASE) in West Antarctica has the highest sensitivity to GRD effects—in high‐emission scenarios, grounding‐line retreat accelerates by hundreds of kilometers by 2300 without GRD effects, but GRD effects delay this retreat on a timescale of decades. However, we find that delay times do not show a clear relationship to the strength of climate forcing alone. Furthermore, GRD effects can influence ice‐sheet dynamics more than the choice of climate model for a given emissions scenario. In contrast, East Antarctica exhibits minimal sensitivity to GRD effects throughout the study period. These findings underscore the critical role of GRD effects in shaping future West AIS evolution, highlighting the importance of constraining the regional 3D Earth structure and bed topography in West Antarctica, particularly the ASE.

Abstract Horizontal land motion, as observed by geodetic techniques such as Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), is generally dominated by tectonic plate movement. However, in regions that are currently or formerly glaciated, such as Greenland, the deformation of the solid Earth due to surface loading complicates the separation of tectonic and glacial signals. Greenland, in particular, exhibits continent‐wide horizontal motion of about toward the northwest direction, as recorded in the ITRF reference frame by the Greenland GNSS Network (GNET). Credible estimates of Greenland's plate motion are currently lacking, which hinders the ability to isolate other geophysical contributions. To address this, we first quantify the horizontal crustal velocity due to elastic deformation from present‐day ice mass changes. We then derive a new plate motion model for the North American Plate using 2891 GNSS stations (including 55 from GNET) and estimate an improved Euler pole position. After removing the effects of both contemporary ice loss and plate motion, the residual horizontal velocity at each GNET site is attributed to Glacial Isostatic Adjustment (GIA) processes. This refined data set provides critical input for future three‐dimensional GIA modeling, enabling more accurate reconstructions of the deglaciation history, as well as better constraints on the solid Earth structure and mantle viscosity beneath Greenland and North America.

ABSTRACT The Terrestrial Reference Frame (TRF) is essential for solid Earth research, including geodesy and geodynamics, providing a unified spatiotemporal datum. With the continuous expansion of global GNSS infrastructure and data, significant progress has been made in refining TRF and models of crustal plate motion and tectonic deformation. This study provides a global velocity field and a plate motion model through three decades of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) data and nonlinear TRF refinement. Key contributions include: (1) the Integrated and Improved Time Series Analysis (IITSA) model, achieving horizontal fitting precision of 3 mm and vertical precision of 6 mm for three-decade GNSS time series; (2) the Global GNSS Velocity Model 2020 (GGVM2020), with RMS values of 0.12, 0.11, and 0.26 mm/yr in the north, east, and up directions, providing new insights into the crustal movements of Antarctica and North America; (3) the Global Interpolation Velocity Model 2020 (GIVM2020), offering a global horizontal velocity grid (3°×3°) with interpolation accuracy better than 3 mm/yr, enabling velocity estimation for any site globally; and (4) the Global Plate Motion Model 2020 (GPMM2020), which improves the accuracy of Euler motion parameters for the 14 major tectonic plates, achieving precision better than 3 mm/yr. In conclusion, the study’s results, including the global GNSS velocity field and plate motion model, enhance the reliability and application of terrestrial reference frame products.

Abstract. Ice streams in the Ross Sea Embayment (West Antarctica) retreated up to 1000 km since the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). One way that bathymetry influenced this retreat was through the presence of local bathymetric highs, or pinning points, which decreased ice flux through the grounding line and slowed grounding line retreat. During this time, glacial isostatic adjustment vertically shifted the underlying bathymetry, altering the grounding line flux. Continental-scale modeling efforts have demonstrated how solid Earth–ice sheet interactions impact the deglacial retreat of marine ice sheets; however, these models are too coarse to resolve small-scale bathymetric features. We pair a high-resolution bathymetry model with a simple model of grounding line stability in an ensemble approach to predict zones of potential grounding line persistence in the Ross Sea Embayment for given combinations of surface mass balance rate, degree of ice shelf buttressing, basal friction coefficient, and bathymetry (corrected for glacial isostatic adjustment using three different ice sheet histories). We find that isostatic depression within the interior of the Ross Sea Embayment during the LGM restricts zones where grounding lines can persist to near the edge of the continental shelf. Most grounding lines cannot persist near the present-day grounding line until sufficient uplift has occurred (mid-Holocene; ∼ 5 ka), and this uplift causes a net upstream migration of grounding line persistence zones across the deglaciation. Additionally, our results show that coarse-resolution bathymetry underpredicts possible stable grounding line positions, particularly near the present-day grounding line, highlighting the importance of bathymetric resolution in capturing the impact of glacial isostatic adjustment on ice stream stability.