Alginate Research Articles

Magnetite Micro/Nanorobots for Efficient Targeted Alleviation of Inflammatory Bowel Disease.

Millions of people worldwide have inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Self-driven micro/nanorobots (MNRs) are efficient in the treatment of IBD. However, their lack of controllability regarding direction of motion in the organism and their inability to achieve continuous navigation limits their further application. In this study, polydopamine is wrapped around the magnetite surface, loaded with an anti-inflammatory drug resveratrol, and wrapped with pH-responsive sodium alginate to obtain magnetic MNRs. MNRs can be driven by magnetic fields to achieve directional movement and targeted transportation. In addition, MNRs can effectively remove reactive oxygen species from the inflammation site, repair intestinal damage, inhibit the cellular pathway of pro-inflammatory factors, such as MAPK and NF-κB pathways, and restore intestinal flora, thereby relieving IBDs. MNRs are safe and effective for in vivo treatment of IBD and have proven to be a promising therapeutic platform. This MNRs therapeutic strategy provides new insights into comprehensive IBD therapy.

A Novel 3D Bioprinting Crosslinking Method Based on Solenoid Valve Control.

The crosslinking method of bioinks is essential for scaffold formation in 3D bioprinting. Currently, the crosslinking process of bioinks presents challenges in control, resulting in diminished stability and reliability of the gel and the presence of residual crosslinking agents that may adversely affect cell viability within the gel. This study utilizes sodium alginate as the printing ink and calcium chloride as the crosslinking agent, employing a dual-mode 3D bioprinter for alternating printing. A crosslinking agent is injected through a solenoid valve after using an extrusion-based printing method to create multilayer cell scaffolds. By controlling the printing intervals and opening times of the valve, precise localized crosslinking is achieved, and multiple alternating prints can be performed according to the required thickness of the scaffold. The results indicate that this solenoid valve crosslinking technology significantly enhances the stability and biological properties of the scaffolds, including excellent hydrophilicity, decreased swelling rate, slow degradation rate, and improved mechanical properties. Additionally, due to the reduced residual crosslinking agent, the cell proliferation rate has significantly increased. This technology advances 3D bioprinting toward a more mature stage and provides significant implications for the development of dual-mode printing.

Insights into cadmium adsorption characteristics and mechanisms by new granular alginate hydrogels reinforced with biochar: Important role of cation exchange.

Insights into cadmium adsorption characteristics and mechanisms by new granular alginate hydrogels reinforced with biochar: Important role of cation exchange.

Broad-Spectrum ROS/RNS Scavenging Catalase-Loaded Microreactors for Effective Oral Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) such as ulcerative colitis (UC) is an autoimmune disease characterized by persistent inflammation along the gastrointestinal tract with excessive generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS)/reactive nitrogen species (RNS) generation. Here, catalase (CAT)-containing microreactor capsules with long-lasting broad-spectrum ROS/RNS-scavenging capability are developed for the treatment of IBD. In this design, CAT is encapsulated in the dense hydrogel network of calcium alginate (ALG) microspheres, which provides long-term protection of CAT activity in protease-rich intestinal environment. Afterward, the polydopamine (PDA) modification on the surface of CAT@ALG microspheres can provide them bioadhesiveness to achieve prolonged retention in the intestinal tract and broad-spectrum scavenging capability against various types of ROS/RNS beyond hydrogen peroxide. Enteric capsules are further used to protect the CAT@ALG-PDA microspheres from gastric fluid for selective release at the intestinal site. The combined action of PDA and CAT in CAT@ALG-PDA microreactors results in the broad-spectrum scavenging of excess ROS/RNS and regulates redox balance in acute UC rat model, showing satisfactory therapeutic effects superior to the mesalazine and adalimumab at clinically relevant doses without obvious side effects. This work highlights that these CAT@ALG-PDA capsules can act as long-acting broad-spectrum ROS/RNS reactors, promising for IBD treatment.

Abstract 1861: A study of the effects of sodium alginate concentration on the physical properties of injectable alginate scaffolds for the treatment of glioblastoma

Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM) is a Grade IV malignant brain cancer with a high recurrence and low survival rate. Despite advances in various therapeutic methods, prognosis has not improved much, thus, alternative treatment methods are needed. Minocycline (MINO), an antibiotic, has been shown to have anti-angiogenic properties useful for GBM treatment. Alginate is a biodegradable polysaccharide that can be used for the fabrication of injectable hydrogels for drug delivery. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of sodium alginate (SA) concentrations (i.e., 1.00, 1.50, and 2.00 wt./vol.%) on scaffold pH, gelation time, dimensions, weight, and cell viability. Scaffolds were fabricated by dissolving SA and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in water, homogenizing with glucono-delta lactone (GDL), then injecting the solution into a 24-well plate to form uniform scaffolds. Scaffold properties were evaluated by determining pH values with a pH meter, gelation time using a tilt test with a digital timer, dimensions with a digital caliper and wet and dry weight (after lyophilization) using an analytical scale. To determine cell viability, U87 GBM cells were treated with 24 hr scaffold release solution, and an MTT assay was performed after 48 hrs. Scaffolds made with the different SA concentrations reached similar pH values after 60 min. (∼6.0). They had workable gelation time (∼15-36 min.) and were able to conform to the topography of the mold. The increase in SA concentration resulted in a decrease in gelation time and a significant increase in diameter, height, dry weight, and overall stability of the scaffold. The increase in SA polymer chains (with higher concentration of SA), allowed for more cross-linking which could have led to the sturdier scaffolds with a significant increase in scaffold height. As expected, as the concentration of SA increases, more components make up the scaffold structure, resulting in a significant increase in scaffold dry weight. The wet weights were not significantly different, probably due to the high-water content of the hydrogels masking the difference in the weight of the scaffold components. Increasing the concentration of SA had no significant effect on the cell viability of the blank scaffolds. The blank and minocycline-loaded scaffolds resulted in 65-70% and 40-45% cell viability, respectively. The drug-loaded scaffolds were able to enhance cell death compared to the control and blank scaffolds. In conclusion, the concentration of SA can be optimized to tune the physical properties of the scaffolds (which may lead to different scaffold degradation rates and drug release kinetics). The alginate scaffolds fabricated in this study may be a promising adjuvant therapy for GBM treatment and future studies will focus on evaluating the effects of the SA concentration on scaffold degradation rate and drug release kinetics. Citation Format: Serenade N. Trevino, Dorina A. Madrid, Samantha Davila, Marco A. Arriaga, Sue Anne Chew. A study of the effects of sodium alginate concentration on the physical properties of injectable alginate scaffolds for the treatment of glioblastoma [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2025; Part 1 (Regular Abstracts); 2025 Apr 25-30; Chicago, IL. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2025;85(8_Suppl_1):Abstract nr 1861.

Mechanically robust polyacrylamide/gelatin ionic hydrogels reinforced by sodium alginate for wearable device applications

Herein, an ionic hydrogel using sodium alginate (SA) toughened polyacrylamide (PAM)/gelatin semi-interpenetrating network with both high strength and high ductility for stress sensing is constructed. In the designed PGS-Ca2+/LiCl (short for PAM/Gelatin/SA-Ca2+/LiCl) hydrogel network, PAM acts as a flexible hydrophilic skeleton, and gelatin acts as a flexible secondary network. The addition of SA inhibits the phase separation of gelatin and improves the transparency of hydrogel. Meanwhile, the macromolecule SA complexes with metal ions of Ca2+, leading to the formation of a distinct complex structure which remarkably enhances the mechanical robustness of the hydrogel. Moreover, the incorporation of inorganic salt LiCl confers high electrical conductivity, concomitantly reducing the freezing point, mitigating water loss, and enhancing the environmental stability of the hydrogel, thereby endowing the hydrogel with improved adaptability to diverse operating conditions. PGS-Ca2+/LiCl has excellent mechanical properties and ultra-high ductility (with a tensile strength up to 110 kPa at break, a strain up to 1500% at break), as well as high stress sensing properties (with an excellent GF of 1.07, a pressure sensitivity of 0.0107). In addition, a handwriting sensor, a Morse code sensor, and an 8 × 8 sensor have been designed to recognize different signals and show the movement of objects and different pressures, which shows that PGS-Ca2+/LiCl ionic hydrogels have great potential in electronic skin, wearable and flexible devices.

Preparation and Characterization of pH-Responsive Microspheres Based on Sodium Alginate and Polyether Amine: Loading and Release of Tryptophan-Derived Cationic Antimicrobials

Preparation and Characterization of pH-Responsive Microspheres Based on Sodium Alginate and Polyether Amine: Loading and Release of Tryptophan-Derived Cationic Antimicrobials

Immobilization of Aspergillus terreus URM4658 inulinase in calcium alginate beads, evaluation of their biochemical characteristics and kinetic/thermodynamic parameters, and application on inulin hydrolysis

The present study aimed to immobilize an inulinase obtained from Aspergillus terreus URM4658 by entrapment in calcium alginate beads. The immobilization process yielded a satisfactory yield (92.72%) using 1.25% sodium alginate and 0.35 M CaCl2 with a curing time of 90 min. The immobilized enzyme exhibited optimum pH and temperature at 7.0 and 60 °C, respectively, showing an increased affinity for the substrate after the immobilization process, as evidenced by the decrease in Km compared to its free form. Moreover, the immobilized inulinase demonstrated good thermostability at 50 and 60 °C, as observed from the t 1/2 (649.83–420.84 min) and D-values (2158.67–1398.00 min), respectively. The immobilized biocatalyst also exhibited good reusability, maintaining 92.73% of residual activity after 10 reaction cycles and no loss of activity after 30 days of storage. A continuous inulin hydrolysis operation in a packed bed reactor was performed using the immobilized inulinase, and a maximum release of total reducing sugars and nystose of 3.27 and 0.82 g L−1, respectively, was observed. The results indicate that an immobilized biocatalyst is a promising alternative for bioprocess involving inulin-rich feedstocks.

Enhancement of bioactivity and molecular docking analysis of bioglass loaded zein and sodium alginate composite beads for biomedical applications

This study intends to conduct both in-vitro and in-silico investigations to assess the bioactivity of newly developed zein/sodium alginate (SA) composite beads. These beads, prepared using the dropwise method, were infused with different concentrations (10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%) of bioglass (BG). These BG-loaded zein/SA- composites were formed into beads with calcium chloride (CaCl2, 5%) as a crosslinking agent. The resulting composite beads were characterized using various techniques (XRD, FTIR, SEM, and EDXA) both before and after in vitro testing in Simulated Body Fluid (SBF). A 3D model of zein was constructed using I-TASSER and validated through PROCHECK and ERRAT servers. The interaction forces between the zein protein and sodium alginate were analyzed in silico using molecular docking with Autodock vina and PyMOL software. The results showed that the formation of a hydroxyapatite (HA) layer on the surface of the BG-loaded zein/SA composite beads confirmed their biological activity, which increased with higher BG content. The results suggest that zein/SA composite beads loaded with bioglass (BG), exhibiting good bioactivity, are suitable for use in bio-tissue engineering applications. A molecular docking study revealed that sodium alginate (SA) can interact with zein through van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonds, leading to the formation of stable complexes. This zein/SA complex is well-suited for carrying bioglass (BG) and has potential applications as a drug carrier in a drug delivery system. Based on the results, our study shows that BG-loaded Zein/SA composite beads are bioactive materials, and can be used in tissue engineering and improve the deposition of new HA, consequently enhancing bone generation. In addition, the prepared composite beads can serve as an excellent drug carrier (future work).

Development of Biomimetic Edible Scaffolds for Cultured Meat Based on the Traditional Freeze-Drying Method for Ito-Kanten (Japanese Freeze-Dried Agar).

In this study, we aimed to develop soy protein-derived edible porous hydrogel scaffolds for cultured meat based on mechanical anisotropy to mimic the physical and biochemical properties of muscle tissues. Based on the traditional Japanese Ito-Kanten (thread agar) freeze-thaw process, we used liquid nitrogen directional freezing combined with ion crosslinking to fabricate an aligned scaffold composed of soy protein isolate (SPI), carrageenan (CA), and sodium alginate (SA). SPI, CA, and SA were dissolved in water, heated, mixed, and subjected to directional freezing in liquid nitrogen. The frozen gel was immersed in Ca2+ and K+ solutions for low-temperature crosslinking, followed by a second freezing step and lyophilization to create the SPI/CA/SA cryogel scaffold with anisotropic pore structure. Furthermore, C2C12 myoblasts were seeded onto the scaffold. After 14 d of dynamic culture, the cells exhibited significant differentiation along the aligned structure of the scaffold. Overall, our developed anisotropic scaffold provided a biocompatible environment to promote directed cell differentiation, showing potential for cultured meat production and serving as a sustainable protein source.

Regulating Growth of Strontium Carbonate in Self-Assembled Chiral Chitin Matrices with Robust Mechanical Properties.

The exoskeleton of arthropods exhibits a Bouligand structure, composed of a chitin matrix and calcium carbonate crystals, which confer exceptional mechanical properties. While many studies focus on the relationship between structure and performance, few investigate the mineral growth process within the Bouligand matrix. Here, chiral chitin films are prepared through evaporation-induced self-assembly of chitin nanowhiskers, and subsequently incubated in SrCO3 mineralizing solution. Initially, precursors deposit on the film surface and transform into mineralized points, which then radially expand outward along the surface and propagate inward until coalescing into a continuous mineral layer. The growth rate of these mineralized points is significantly enhanced by increasing the reaction temperature; at 60 °C, the growth rate is 13 times faster (650.4 μm2/min) compared to that at 25 °C (49.7 μm2/min). Finally, SrCO3/chitin composite bulks are fabricated by stacking and hot-pressing multiple mineralized chitin films, adhered using sodium alginate (SA) solution through spin coating. The resulting SrCO3/chitin@SA composites exhibit a bending strength of 64.2 MPa, representing a 27% increase over pure chitin bulk and a 105% increase over pure SrCO3 bulk. Our work provides a strategy for low-temperature fabrication of high-performance artificial composites.

In vitro cytotoxicity evaluation of a CMC-SA edible packaging film for migration and safety assessment

Edible raw materials have gained attention as sustainable food packaging films, which are often considered a priori safe for human consumption. However, cytotoxicity issues may arise due to the incorporation of additives or modifications of film functionality during the manufacturing process. This study introduces an integrated methodology for the evaluation of potential migration of cytotoxic substances from materials used for the development of conventional and biodegradable food packaging. Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and sodium alginate (SA) were tested as raw materials of an edible (CMC-SA) film, while a low-density-polyethylene (LDPE) film was tested as a conventional material. The CMC-SA film exhibited higher water vapor transmission rate and water vapor permeability, and lower hydrophobicity compared to LDPE (WVTRCMC−SA=1457.87 vs. WVTRLDPE=3.43 g×m−2×day−1, WVPCMC−SA=43.24 vs. WVPLDPE=0.0048 g×m−2×mm×day−1×kPa−1 and CACMC−SA=52.05 vs. CALDPE=94.28°, respectively). An analytical protocol based on EU Regulation 10/2011 was introduced, to evaluate the potential migration of cytotoxic packaging substances into food simulants, using different human cells. Caco2 cells were used to simulate human intestine, whereas Huh7 and Immortalized Human Hepatocytes (IHH) cells simulated human liver. Cell viability assays and gene expression results indicated that substances migrating from the tested packaging materials neither produced cell cytotoxicity, nor induced oxidative stress to Caco2 cells.

The Identification and Characterization of a Novel Alginate Lyase from Mesonia hitae R32 Exhibiting High Thermal Stability and Potent Antioxidant Oligosaccharide Production.

Alginate lyases are of great importance in biotechnological and industrial processes, yet research on these enzymes from Mesonia genus bacteria is still limited. In this study, a novel PL6 family alginate lyase, MhAly6, was cloned and characterized from the deep-sea bacterium Mesonia hitae R32. The enzyme, composed of 797 amino acids, contains both PL6 and GH28 catalytic domains. A phylogenetic analysis revealed its classification into subfamily 1 of the PL6 family. MhAly6 showed optimal activity at 45 °C and pH 9.0, retaining over 50% activity after 210 min of incubation at 40 °C, highlighting its remarkable thermal stability. The enzyme exhibited degradation activity toward sodium alginate, Poly M, and Poly G, with the highest affinity for its natural substrate, sodium alginate, producing alginate oligosaccharides (AOSs) with degrees of polymerization (DP) ranging from 2 to 7. Molecular docking identified conserved catalytic sites (Lys241/Arg262) and Ca2+ binding sites (Asn202/Glu234/Glu236), while the linker and GH28 domain played an auxiliary role in substrate binding. Antioxidant assays revealed that the MhAly6-derived AOSs showed potent radical-scavenging activity, achieving 80.64% and 95.39% inhibition rates against DPPH and ABTS radicals, respectively. This work not only expands our understanding of alginate lyases from the Mesonia genus but also highlights their biotechnological potential for producing functional AOSs with antioxidant properties, opening new avenues for their applications in food and pharmaceuticals.

Evaluation and characterization of framycetin sulphate loaded hydrogel dressing for enhanced wound healing.

Hydrogels loaded with antibiotics can be an effective drug delivery systemfor treating skin diseases or conditions such asinburns and wound healing. The current research work was planned to preparea hydrogel dressing for an effective wound healing. The hydrogel formulation was aimed to provide sustained drug release, reducing the frequency of repeated applying the transdermal drug formulation or patch. Different polymers, polyvinyl alcohol, sodium alginate, and polyvinyl pyrrolidonein varying ratios were used to prepare hydrogels by freeze-thawing method. The prepared hydrogel formulations were loaded with framycetinsulphate (FC-S), a topical aminoglycoside. Swelling behaviour, drug release pattern, wereinvestigated.Equilibrium and dynamic studies were conducted at pH 7.4. The prepared hydrogel formulations showed Euilibriumswellingratio of 197.5%. The in-vitro release pattern of FC-Shydrogels was determined by dissolution testing. The prepared hydrogels were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM)andfourier transform infrared (FTIR)spectroscopy.Animal study was conducted on rats to evaluatethe in-vivo therapeutic effectiveness of FC-S hydrogels in wound healing. For that purpose,wounds were induced in the animals. The drug loaded hydrogel dressing was effiecent in wound heaing as the wound treated with FC-S loaded hydrogel was almost completely healed (97%) on the fifth day in comparison to commercially available product (Sofra Tulle gauze) that healed 86%, whereas free FC-S manifested healing at 76%. It was observed that hydrogel dressing loaded with FC-S was therapeutically more efficient and can be used as a potential candidate for wound healing.

Enhanced Vitamin D3 Adsorption Through Novel Hydrophobic Halloysite–Alginate Biopolymer Composites

This study presents a sustainable strategy to enhance polymer encapsulation, adsorption, and functional properties by chemically modifying sodium alginate with hydrophobic groups. Hydrophobic alginate derivatives were synthesized via a solvent-free method using hexadecyl trimethylammonium bromide, resulting in nanoparticles capable of effectively capturing non-polar compounds. To further improve compatibility within alginate-based biocomposites, halloysite nanotubes were modified through ball milling and surfactant-assisted treatments. The resulting nanocomposites (MBHA and MHHA) exhibited significantly enhanced adsorption and controlled release behavior, as confirmed by FTIR analysis of hexadecyl alginate ester conjugation. Vitamin D3 adsorption followed the Langmuir isotherm, with high correlation coefficients (R2 = 0.998 for MBHA and R2 = 0.991 for MHHA), indicating monolayer adsorption on a homogenous surface. Kinetic modeling revealed that the adsorption process adhered to a pseudo-second-order model (R2 = 0.9969 for MBHA and R2 = 0.999 for MHHA), suggesting that chemisorption was the dominant rate-controlling mechanism. These results demonstrate the critical role of surface modification in designing nano-engineered biopolymers with superior adsorption, stability, and release profiles, offering sustainable applications in medicine, agriculture, and environmental remediation.

Plant-Based Burgers with Reduced Texture Additives: A Comparative Study of Methylcellulose and Sodium Alginate

The limited number of additives in plant-based burgers is related to clean label consumer perception, which influences purchase intention. Starch is typically combined with other texturing agents to replicate the texture and mouthfeel of meat burgers. It is necessary to reformulate these products following consumers’ trends, who prefer healthier products with fewer additives. Two hydrocolloids with significant commercial application and different functionality were evaluated: methylcellulose (M) or sodium alginate (SA). Four formulations were developed, two containing starch (M+S and SA+S) and two without starch (M and SA). The alginate burgers provided samples with high water retention capacity and a cohesive and adhesive texture, superior to the samples with methylcellulose, without the need to add starch, due to their stabilizing, thickening, and gelling properties derived from their “egg-crate” structure when gelled. Furthermore, sensory analysis indicated that the sodium alginate burgers had a softer and creamier texture. In contrast, starch removal in the methylcellulose burgers enhanced their appearance due to gel transparency and desirable textural properties, akin to those of meat. These results promote using a 3 g/100 g methylcellulose solution as the sole binding agent in soybean burgers to achieve a product with reduced additives.

A stress-tolerant strain Rhodococcus sp. WH103 was isolated and co-immobilized to more efficiently degrade phenazine-1-carboxylic acid

Phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA), the main active ingredient of the bio-fungicide shenqinmycin, has been widely used in agriculture due to its excellent antimicrobial properties. However, it poses risks to non-target microorganisms and causes phytotoxicity, necessitating efficient degradation strategies. In this study, six PCA-degrading bacterial strains were isolated from the rice rhizosphere by enrichment culture. Subsequently, Rhodococcus sp. WH103, which showed the highest efficiency in degrading PCA as well as tolerance to high temperature (42 °C) and osmotic stress (addition of 0.7 M NaCl) was subjected to further study. Additionally, the co-immobilization of strain WH103 cells with sodium alginate (SA) and biochar was explored. The SA-biochar-bacterial beads successfully degraded PCA to below 0.001 mM under optimized conditions within 21 h and exhibited reusability for up to 12 cycles. Notably, the SA-biochar-bacterial beads significantly alleviated the phytotoxicity of PCA during seed germination. This study provides an excellent strain resource and method reference for PCA degradation, lays the foundation for the practical application of pollutant-degrading microorganisms in environmental remediation.

3D tubular constructs based on natural polysaccharides and recombinant polypeptide synergistic blends as potential candidates for blood vessel solutions.

3D tubular constructs based on natural polysaccharides and recombinant polypeptide synergistic blends as potential candidates for blood vessel solutions.

Herbal bioactive-loaded biopolymeric formulations for wound healing applications.

Recent advancements in wound healing technologies focus on incorporating herbal bioactives into biopolymeric formulations. A biocompatible matrix that promotes healing is provided by biopolymeric wound dressings. These dressings use components such as ulvan, hyaluronic acid, starch, cellulose, chitosan, alginate, gelatin, and pectin. These natural polymers assist in three crucial processes, namely, cell adhesion, proliferation, and moisture retention, all of which are necessary for effective wound repair. Curcumin, quercetin, Aloe vera, Vinca alkaloids, and Centella asiatica are some of the herbal bioactives that are included in biopolymeric formulations. They have powerful anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antioxidant activities. Chitosan, cellulose, collagen, alginate, and hyaluronic acid are some of the biopolymers that have shown promise in clinical trials for wound healing. These trials have also confirmed the safety and functional performance of these materials. Their recent advancements in wound care can be understood by the increasing number of patents linked to these formulations. These innovative dressings improve healing outcomes in acute and chronic wounds while minimizing adverse effects by incorporating biopolymers with herbal bioactives in an efficient manner. This review emphasizes that the development of next-generation wound care products can be facilitated via the integration of natural materials and bioactive substances.

Development of breast tissue-mimicking electrical and acoustic phantoms for magneto-acoustic electrical tomography.

Magneto-acousto electrical tomography (MAET) is a novel medical imaging technique that relies on the difference in electrical properties between healthy and tumor tissues. To facilitate MAET experiments, this study proposes a comprehensive procedure for developing, characterizing, and preserving realistic breast tissue-mimicking phantoms. We developed nontoxic and inexpensive phantoms using sodium alginate, graphite powder, agar, propanediol, aluminum powder, glycine, and deionized water. The dielectric (conductivity and permittivity) and acoustic (speed of sound) properties of phantoms (breast fat, breast gland, and tumor) within the 1-8MHz frequency range were measured to ensure their suitability for MAET experiments. In conclusion, this study presents a detailed methodology for the preparation, characterization, and preservation of realistic breast tissue-mimicking phantoms tailored for MAET experiments.