Socioeconomic Differences Research Articles

The impact of ageing, socio-economic differences and the evolution of morbidity on future health expenditure – a dynamic microsimulation

BackgroundPopulation ageing is associated with rising healthcare expenditure. To inform policy and adapt health systems accordingly, a detailed quantitative analysis of the different components of ageing and other factors that influence cost dynamics is needed.MethodsWe use dynamic microsimulation to project healthcare expenditure in Austria and disentangle the effects of changes in longevity, population age-structure, healthy life years and socio-economic health disparities. By combining price weights for healthcare services with information on healthcare consumption from the Austrian Health Interview Survey, we construct average cost profiles by gender, age, and education. These profiles, aligned with the System of Health Accounts, are integrated into the microDEMS model, along with official population projections, to estimate expenditure scenarios until 2060. We examine the relationship between rising life expectancy and changes in healthy life years and assess the potential impact of closing the gap in costs currently observed between education groups. Total and per-capita cost trajectories are derived and evaluated against two indicators for the size of the labor force to assess economic implications.ResultsIn all scenarios, demographic ageing increases the financial burden on the economically active population, even with morbidity compression. Nearly two-thirds of the projected cost increase stems from declining mortality, while one-third results from age-structure changes. Per-capita costs rise by 26% under a morbidity expansion scenario but could decrease by 5% if lower mortality is accompanied by an extension of healthy life years and a reduction in socio-economic health disparities. In economic terms, costs per working-age person increase by 12% to 48%, depending on the scenario. When adjusting for labor force expansion and the associated economic benefits, the increase ranges between 5% and 39%.ConclusionsRising healthcare expenditure poses a major challenge in an ageing society. However, policies that extend healthy life years and reduce socio-economic disparities offer viable strategies to significantly mitigate the economic impact of ageing.

Factors associated with hospitalizations due to severe malaria in the non-endemic Brazilian region: a case–control study in the extra-Amazon Region from 2011 to 2019

BackgroundMalaria is infectious disease with low occurrence in Brazil extra-Amazon Region. Despite this, higher lethality is observed in this region compared to the country's endemic area. Therefore, this study aimed to analyse factors associated with malaria hospitalizations (severe malaria) in the extra-Amazon Region, in order to prevent deaths. MethodsA case–control design was used, utilizing data from the Brazilian Notifiable Diseases Information System (Sinan) and hospitalization records from the Unified Health System (SIH/SUS) from 2011 to 2019. Cases comprised hospitalized malaria patients, while controls included reported malaria notifications without hospitalization. Probabilistic record linkage techniques were employed, and associations were analysed using multiple logistic regression with a 0.05 significance level. ResultsThe main risk factors identified were: Black or mixed-race ethnicity (OR = 1.22; 95% CI 1.04–1.43), low education (elementary school OR = 2.21; 95% CI 1.78–2.75 or high school OR = 1.72; 95% CI 1.39–2.13), infection outside the extra-Amazon Region (Amazon Region OR = 1.50; 95% CI 1.15–1.96 or abroad OR = 1.72; 95% CI 1.28–2.32), high parasite count (501 to 10,000/mm3 OR = 1.51; 95% CI 1.27–1.80, 10,001 to 100,000/mm3 OR = 1.77; 95% CI 2.87–1.96 or higher than 100,000/mm3 OR = 3.15; 95% CI 2.20–4.50) and delayed treatment (after 3–7 days symptoms onset OR = 1.74; 95% CI 1.36–2.24 or 8 days or more OR = 2.08; 95% CI 1.62–2.66). Active case detection was a protective factor (OR = 0.65; 95% CI 0.54–0.78).ConclusionsDelayed treatment remains a key factor in the occurrence of severe malaria, leading to high parasitaemia and revealing inequalities in access to healthcare based on socioeconomic differences. Travel to the Amazon Region or other countries also poses a challenge, requiring strengthened traveller health strategies and increased surveillance awareness to promptly suspect and identify cases.

Exploration is associated with socioeconomic disparities in learning and academic achievement in adolescence

Adolescents from lower socioeconomic status backgrounds often underperform on tests of learning and academic achievement. Existing theories propose that these disparities reflect not only external constraints, like limited resources, but also internal decision strategies that adapt to the early environment and influence learning. These theories predict that adolescents from lower socioeconomic status backgrounds explore less and exploit more, which, in turn, reduces learning and academic achievement. Here, we test this possibility and show that lower socioeconomic status in adolescence is associated with less exploration on a reward learning task (n = 124, 12–14-year-olds from the United States). Computational modeling revealed that reduced exploration was related to higher loss aversion. Reduced exploration also mediated socioeconomic differences in task performance, school grades, and, in a lower-socioeconomic status subsample, academic skills. These findings raise the possibility that learning disparities across socioeconomic status relate not only to external constraints but also to internal decision strategies and provide some mechanistic insight into the academic achievement gap.

Disparities in Caregiver-reported Knowledge, Attitudes, Behaviors, and Clinical Guidance regarding Primary Prevention of Peanut Allergy.

Disparities in Caregiver-reported Knowledge, Attitudes, Behaviors, and Clinical Guidance regarding Primary Prevention of Peanut Allergy.

Factors affecting adoption of organic fertilizer production among the cattle farmers in Bogura district of Bangladesh

Organic fertilizer production from cattle waste lessens environmental damage and improves the standard of living of cattle farmers through uncovering additional income sources. Majority of the cattle farmers in Bangladesh either are unaware about eco-friendly farming, or they fail to comprehend the potentials of utilizing cattle waste as organic fertilizer. This study aims to determine the socio-economic and farm-level factors that influence the farmers to produce organic fertilizer from cattle waste. From four rural villages in Bogura district of Bangladesh, 84 households who rear cattle were selected randomly, and then interviewed following a well-structured survey schedule. Descriptive statistics and binary logit model were used to analyze the data. It was evident that, 71% of the selected cattle farmers adopted organic fertilizer production. Minimum socioeconomic differences were observed among the cattle rearing households. Six explanatory variables namely education of the household head, farming experience, risk perception, cattle rearing subsidy, access to internet, and farm’s distance from the nearest extension office were found to have significant influence towards farmer’s adoption of organic fertilizer production. For ensuring sustainable adoption, farmers should be made aware regarding green farming through proper on field training and frequent campaigns. In addition, continuous subsidy along with logistic support from both government and non-government organizations must be ensured to encourage the farmers towards organic fertilizer production. J. Sylhet Agril. Univ. 11(2): 81-88, 2024

ADAS Technologies and User Trust: An Area-Based Study with a Sociodemographic Focus

This study investigates the knowledge, perception and trust in Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) among drivers in Eastern Sicily, a Mediterranean region characterized by infrastructural and socio-economic differences. A structured survey (N = 961) was conducted to assess user attitudes towards eight key ADAS technologies using two validated indices: the Knowledge Index (KI) and the Importance Index (II). To capture user consistency, a normalized product (z(KI) × z(II)) was calculated for each technology. This composite metric enabled the identification of three latent dimensions through exploratory factor analysis: Emergency-Triggered Systems, Adaptive and Reactive Systems and Driver Vigilance and Stability Systems. The results show a clear discrepancy between perceived importance (56.6%) and actual knowledge (35.1%). Multivariate analyses show that direct experience with ADAS-equipped vehicles significantly increases both awareness and confidence. Age is inversely correlated with knowledge, while gender has only a marginal influence. The results are consistent with established acceptance models such as TAM and UTAUT, which emphasize the role of perceived usefulness and trust. The study presents an innovative integration of psychometric metrics and behavioral theory that provides a robust and scalable framework for assessing user readiness in evolving mobility contexts, particularly in regions facing infrastructural heterogeneity and cultural changes in travel behavior.

Socioeconomic disparities in diabetes prevalence among the population in Ireland

IntroductionA large variation in diabetes prevalence by socioeconomic status (SES) persists internationally. This study aimed to quantify the prevalence of diabetes by age and SES and explore the current levels of inequality in the prevalence of diabetes in Ireland.MethodsAnnual cross-sectional self-reported diabetes data from the national population-based Healthy Ireland Survey for 2015–2023 (n = 59,933) were utilised. Highest educational attainment and area-based deprivation were used as SES indicators. Additionally, the differences in diabetes prevalence across population age-groups were reported. Socioeconomic differences and change in inequality over time were quantified using the relative index of inequality (RII). Logistic regression was used to estimate the relative risk (RR) for having self-reported diabetes according to age and SES, adjusted for sex and survey year.ResultsDiabetes prevalence was highest among individuals aged > 75 years (13.1%) compared to those aged < 40 years (1.0%). Similarly, prevalence was highest among the least educated (8.1%; RR = 2.73; 95% CI = 2.38, 3.13) compared to most educated (1.7%) and individuals living in most deprived areas (6.0%; RR = 2.18; 95% CI = 1.76, 2.70) compared to least deprived areas (2.2%). Additionally, the magnitude of relative inequalities as determined by education level were more than twofold greater than the magnitude of inequalities determined by area-based deprivation. Relative inequalities among individuals with diabetes persisted over the period 2015–2023 among the least educated (RII = 3.9; 95% CI = 3.3,4.6) and individuals living in the most deprived areas (RII = 3.65; 95% CI = 2.4,5.5). A slight increase in relative inequalities among the least educated, and a slight decline in relative inequalities among the most deprived was observed, however, these changes over time were not statistically significant.ConclusionThis is the first study to examine the socioeconomic variation of diabetes prevalence at the Irish population level. Significant differences in diabetes prevalence persist. With the ageing Irish population, this study highlights the need to consider potential effects of diabetes across the older populations and the lowest socioeconomic status groups when implementing equity-oriented diabetes prevention and management programmes.

Genetic association of intelligence with longevity in Drosophila melanogaster

Epidemiological studies in different populations, in different countries, and in different epochs consistently showed that high intelligence is positively correlated with longevity. The link between high intelligence and longevity has remained unknown, only to be assumed as a consequence of the socioeconomic difference associated with intelligence in human population. Here, we report that genome stability contributes both to lifespan and intelligence in Drosophila melanogaster. The intelligence of the genetically heterogenous flies was determined by T-maze olfactory memory assay, and the flies moving to the right direction defined as intelligent flies (INT) were separated from the flies moving to the wrong direction defined as non-intelligent flies (NINT). INT male and female lived 26.40% and 21.35% longer than NINT male and female, respectively, suggesting a possible genetic linkage between intelligence and longevity. The bidirectional selective breeding based on intelligence extended lifespans gradually generation by generation in INT breeding contrast to the reversed pattern in NINT breeding. INT of F12 generation lived longer than NINT of F12 generation, 63.91% for male and 67.88% for female, as a result from slower aging. The whole-genome transcriptome analysis showed the activation of the genes in ribosome and autophagy in INT and the pathways of genome stability and immune reaction in NINT. Especially, the genetic pathway associated with genome stability was most noticeable, indicating that genome stability contributes both to lifespan and intelligence in D. melanogaster.

Socioeconomic differences in population growth in 19th century Liaoning, China: a decomposition

Socioeconomic differences in population growth in 19th century Liaoning, China: a decomposition

Unravelling the roadblocks and pathways to adolescents’ physical activity

ABSTRACT Background The COVID-19 pandemic negatively affected adolescents’ opportunities for physical activity in many countries. Aim To explore experiences and opportunities for physical activity among Swedish adolescents with different backgrounds, considering both the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and broader influencing factors during and after this period. Methods Data was collected through focus group interviews (n = 13) with 86 students and analysed using content analysis. Results Although many adolescents managed to remain physically active during the COVID-19 pandemic, socioeconomic differences affected opportunities for participation in organized sports and activities, as well as perceptions of community safety. Findings also highlighted the important role of schools and the influence of gender and performance norms on physical activity, as well as young girls’ desire for “safe spaces” to focus on their training and development. Conclusion The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted routines, prompting adaptations and exposing various barriers. Social belonging, socioeconomic background, and prevailing norms significantly influenced activity levels, while the balance between independence and safety emerged as a key factor. Moving forward, we recommend investing in community safety, youth sports, and supportive school policies that challenge gender and performance norms, particularly in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas.

EVALUATING COUNTRIES’ EFFICIENCIES AGAINST COVID-19 CONCERNING THEIR STRUCTURAL AND CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

ABSTRACT The coronavirus (COVID-19) after first confirmation in China in 2019, has spread rapidly and caused significant damage all over the world. World countries have struggled with this situation using various policy tools. However, due to the socio-economic and cultural differences some countries had better performance, than the others. In this context, this study evaluates the management efficiencies and performances of countries against pandemic between the periods of February, 20, 2020 and February, 20, 2022 (before spread of vaccination). At the same time, from the data, some clues about the linkage between the performances and the structural characteristics (culture and socio-economic properties) of the countries tried to be find out. For this aim, first efficiency analysis is implemented via Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) method. Via DEA analyses sources of inefficiency and benchmarks, thereby potentially yield managerial insights into organizational improvements, have been find out. Therefore, the key factors of the efficiency, peer countries for inefficient ones (and the suitable way to be efficient for them) have been also determined. Moreover, in order to observe the links between efficiency scores and structural characteristics of the countries more accurately, a clustering analysis technique (Ward’s Method) has been used. The results mainly imply that; structurally developed (which have higher income and better health infrastructure) and culturally secular / rational countries have been efficient in the struggle against pandemic.

Social patterns of miscarriage reporting and risk: insights from survey data in France.

Miscarriages, which are spontaneous pregnancy losses before 20-28 weeks of gestation, affect approximately 15% of recognized pregnancies. Existing population-based evidence of social inequalities in miscarriage risk is inconsistent, partly due to a lack of data. Surveys can be representative of a national population but are subject to underreporting of miscarriages. We examine whether miscarriages are underreported in a French nationally representative survey, FECOND (2010-11), and analyse socioeconomic risk factors for miscarriage. First, we apply a model that estimates miscarriage underreporting. Second, we use multilevel multinomial logistic regressions to examine socio-demographic and epidemiological factors associated with miscarriage. We estimate that 92% of miscarriages were reported, and underreporting was slightly more pronounced among lower-educated women. The estimated prevalence of miscarriages (14% of all pregnancies) is unaffected by underreporting rates and only with small educational differences. Thus, investigating social disparities in miscarriage risk can be done without correcting for reporting bias. Advanced reproductive ages are associated with higher miscarriage risk. Unobserved time-consistent individual characteristics explain the association between miscarriage risk and prior reproductive history. Conversely, education and self-assessed financial conditions are not associated with miscarriage risk. Younger cohorts exhibit a higher miscarriage risk, suggesting an age effect on recall, a cohort effect on pregnancy recognition, or reduced stigma resulting in more reliable reporting of miscarriage. In sum, the miscarriage reporting rate in FECOND survey is relatively high and with only slight social disparities. No large socioeconomic differences were found in miscarriage risk.

Understanding household food waste behaviours in Jordan: ethnographic research

PurposeIn Jordan, household food waste remains substantial despite limited research, data and policy interventions targeting its reduction. This study addresses the critical gap by exploring household behaviours towards food waste in the Jordanian context.Design/methodology/approachThe study employed a qualitative research paradigm by approaching ethnographic research to gain a clearer picture of the household behaviours related to food waste practices and routines of everyday life in Jordan. This study was conducted with 20 households across West and East Amman by carrying out four main methods: a survey, ethnographic observation, photovoice and semistructured interviews.FindingsThe study identified key factors influencing household food waste behaviours in Jordan, including generosity, religious beliefs, socioeconomic disparities and deficient planning practices. Generosity, rooted in cultural norms of hospitality, often led to over-preparation and waste, while religious values promoted restraint and ethical food handling. Socioeconomic differences between West and East Amman shaped purchasing habits and storage practices, with wealthier households exhibiting more materialistic behaviours. Single-person households faced unique challenges, including oversized packaging and reliance on external dining. These insights highlight the interplay between cultural, economic and practical factors in shaping food waste behaviours, suggesting targeted, context-sensitive interventions.Research limitations/implicationsThe study’s findings are limited by the focus on urban areas of Amman, which may not fully represent broader Jordanian contexts, including rural regions. Reliance on self-reported data such as photovoice diaries and interviews introduces potential biases, including social desirability. The research predominantly examines cultural and socioeconomic drivers with less emphasis on environmental or policy-related factors. Future studies should include larger, more diverse samples, integrate objective data collection methods (e.g. waste audits) and explore the influence of governmental policies and infrastructure to provide a more holistic understanding of household food waste behaviours.Practical implicationsThe study provides actionable insights for reducing household food waste in Jordan. It highlights the need for public awareness campaigns promoting sustainable hospitality practices that respect cultural norms while reducing waste. Design interventions, such as workshops on meal planning and portion estimation, can address over-preparation linked to generosity. Policies encouraging affordable, portion-sized packaging and supporting efficient food storage are essential, especially in lower-income areas. Religious and cultural values, such as moderation and ethical food redistribution, should be integrated into sustainability initiatives. These measures can mitigate food waste while aligning with local traditions and socioeconomic contexts to enhance effectiveness.Originality/valueThis study offers novel insights by introducing generosity as a cultural factor influencing household food waste in Jordan, a perspective largely unexplored in prior research. By examining the interplay between cultural norms, religious values and socioeconomic disparities, it enriches the understanding of food waste behaviours in a Middle Eastern context. The ethnographic approach, incorporating methods like photovoice and semi-structured interviews, provides a nuanced and participatory perspective. The findings emphasise the dual role of generosity in fostering hospitality and driving waste, offering valuable implications for culturally sensitive interventions to balance traditional practices with sustainable food consumption.

Long-term transition governance and regional innovation cultures: A comparative perspective

Many regions face pressures to embark on economic, technological, social, and ecological transitions, which often challenge existing regional identities and governance approaches. This paper examines how two regions – the Rhenish Region, affected by the lignite phase-out, and Heilbronn-Franken, confronted with digitalization and global competition in its industrial “Mittelstand” – reconcile long-term transition governance and regional innovation pressures. Despite distinct challenges, both regions share a top-down governance approach, a focus on education and R&amp;D, corporatist actor constellations, dedicated technology implementation strategies, and an emphasis on stability. Within these similarities, socio-economic and cultural differences exist; however, the similarities suggest a mutual learning potential. We propose two levels of reflexivity in long-term governance and argue that these commonalities should be used in national or global strategies for greater inclusivity and effectiveness.

Socio-demographic and socio-economic differences in the availability of green space in the Netherlands

We aimed to map the spatial distribution of green space in the Netherlands, and to first comprehensively assess socio-demographic and socio-economic differences in the availability of green space in the Netherlands. Data was analyzed from all registered residents of the Netherlands aged one and above on January 1, 2017 (16,440,620 individuals). Socio-demographic and socio-economic information was derived from Statistics Netherlands. Data on green space density (percent of the area) around home were assembled by the Institute for Public Health and the Environment at the address level. The distribution of exposure to green space was described by age groups, sex, ethnicity, household socioeconomic status (SES), and urbanicity degree, and stratified by green space type. The distribution of green space by all vegetation, trees, shrubs, low vegetation, grass field, and agriculture was mapped for the Netherlands in 2017. Small differences in green space density were found across age and sex groups. Ethnic Dutch (58.1%) and Indonesian (54.5%) had more green space coverage around residence than Turkish (50.0%) and Moroccan (50.0%). People with higher household SES generally had greater green space coverage, although it slightly decreased at the highest SES level. Higher urbanicity levels were monotonously associated with lower green space exposure. These differences particularly originated from differences in low vegetation. Observed differences between ethnic and SES groups originated mostly from differences in rural to moderately urbanized areas. Environmental injustice was found among ethnic, SES, and urbanicity groups. The differences were mostly present in low vegetation and in rural to moderately urbanized areas.

Household and farm-level drivers of the use and intensity of soil fertility amendments in smallholder farming systems: a case of Masvingo District, Zimbabwe, and Mopani District, South Africa

IntroductionSmallholder farming systems critically secure livelihoods and significantly contribute towards household food security in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Sustainable soil fertility management is, however, essential for improving crop and livestock productivity and resilience in smallholder farming systems.MethodsUsing the integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) approach, an investigation into the intricate relationship between socio-economic and farm-level factors and agricultural practices on the use and intensity of use of quantities of organic soil amendments (OSA) and inorganic soil amendments (ISA) among smallholder farmers in Masvingo, Zimbabwe and Mopani, South Africa, which remains poorly understood among rural farming communities, revealed complex relationships among these factors and issues.Results and discussionThe ISFM approach employing binary and ordered logistic regression models on household survey data (n=378) found that the farmer’s location (i.e. district), years of formal education, literacy, household labor, income sources and monthly income, total landholding, main crop grown, livestock ownership, soil type and soil testing significantly affected fertilizer adoption and fertilizer application intensity. Farmers in Masvingo, Zimbabwe, were more inclined to use and apply higher quantities of OSA and ISA than those in Mopani, South Africa, highlighting the role of regional agroecological and socio-economic differences. Cattle ownership significantly increased OSA use while negatively influencing ISA use, reinforcing the importance of crop-livestock integration. Additionally, soil testing encouraged ISA application but discouraged OSA use, suggesting that farmers perceived ISA as a more immediate response to soil fertility deficiencies.ConclusionThe contrasting influence of some socio-economic factors indicates the intricate nature of smallholder farming systems and how household characteristics are intertwined with ISFM decisions. Therefore, there is a need for context-specific farmer education programs, tailored soil testing programs, financial support for fertilizer access, and location-specific extension services to address the unique differences among smallholder farmers in rural areas to enhance soil fertility, improve crop and livestock productivity, and increase overall resilience in smallholder farming systems.

Association of Socioeconomic Status With IQ and Attention in School Children in Poland, a Country With Relatively Low Socioeconomic Differences.

Socioeconomic inequalities affect health via multiple biological, behavioral, and social pathways. Specifically, low socioeconomic status (SES) negatively impacts children's intelligence quotient (IQ). Most data on this topic comes from high-inequality countries such as the United States. Here, we investigate the relation between SES, IQ, and attention and how it might be mediated by early-childhood factors in 10- to 13-year-old children in Poland, a country with relatively low inequality and a medium GDP level. Executive attention was measured using a go/no-go task. We found that parental education significantly influenced IQ and attention. Low SES children scored on average 3 IQ points lower than high SES children and had significantly longer reaction times and d' (discrimination accuracies). Family SES had a clear non-mediated impact on IQ and an overall effect on attention. On the other hand, smoking/alcohol during pregnancy and breastfeeding, while all correlated with SES, did not mediate its effects on IQ or attention. We conclude that the impact of SES on cognition is considerable even in a low-inequality country such as Poland, and in our population it cannot be explained by these early-life factors. Trial Registration: Clinical Trials Identifier: NCT04574414.

Pengaruh Stratifikasi Sosial Terhadap Akses Pendidikan Dasar di Wilayah Perkotaan dan Pedesaan

Education plays a crucial role in determining an individual's social position in society and serves as a means to promote social mobility. However, the reality in Indonesia reveals a significant disparity in access to education between urban and rural areas due to social stratification. This study aims to examine how social stratification affects access to basic education, particularly in the context of geographical and socioeconomic differences. Using a descriptive qualitative approach through literature review, this article analyzes relevant literature on educational inequality, its impact on school-aged children, and potential strategies to address the issue. The findings indicate that children in rural areas face various challenges, including limited educational facilities, a shortage of qualified teachers, and difficult geographical conditions. Meanwhile, in urban areas, although facilities are more complete, economic factors remain a major barrier for underprivileged groups. This inequality leads to low school participation, poor literacy, and decreased learning motivation among students. Therefore, comprehensive strategies such as equitable zoning policies, scholarships, development of educational infrastructure, and cross-sector collaboration are needed to ensure equal and inclusive access to education for all members of society.

Social Gaps in Eligibility for a Matriculation Certificate in Israel: A Pre- and Post-COVID-19 Comparison

Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic, as a global health crisis, has disrupted schools and students’ lives, and raised concern about an increase in social inequality. Three hypotheses were examined: 1. Between pre-COVID-19, during COVID-19, and post-COVID-19, there will be a decrease over time in the percentage of matriculation certificate (PMC) and outstanding matriculation certificate eligibility (POMC) in schools; (H2) The decrease in PMC over time will be greater in schools in the Arab sector compared to those in the Jewish sector and within each educational sector, in low-socioeconomic schools compared to high-socioeconomic schools; (H3) Sectorial and socioeconomic differences in schools’ POMC eligibility over time will be greater than the PMC eligibility. These hypotheses were tested within the context of the Ministry of Education modification of the format of matriculation exams, at 12th grade. The data included 863 schools in the Jewish and Arab sectors on four time points: pre (2019), during (2020-2021), and post-COVID-19 (2022). Descriptive analysis and a two-level linear mixed model with repeated measures were conducted. An increase in the percentage of matriculation certificate eligibility was found in schools, particularly in disadvantaged ones, reducing sectoral and socioeconomic inequality. At the same time there was an increase in the percentage of outstanding matriculation certificates, mainly among advantaged schools, leading to an increase in inequality. The findings indicate a decrease in vertical stratification and an increase in horizontal stratification, emphasizing the complexity of promoting educational opportunities in the era of risk society.

Socio-economic differences in receiving care by the over-80s in Germany and England: intensity of care needs as a moderator

The growing number of people aged 80 or older living in the community has raised concerns about meeting their care needs and about socio-economic inequalities in their care use. The study examines socio-economic status (SES) patterns in informal and formal care use, as well as unmet care needs, of people aged 80 or older living in the community in Germany and England. We propose that SES patterns in care use change with the intensity of care needs. The analyses use data from the Survey of Quality of Life and Well-Being of the Very Old in North Rhine-Westphalia and the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Despite the differences in the long-term care systems (LTCSs) and cultural norms around filial obligations, we find a consistent pattern of association between socio-economic status (SES) and care use for older people with only few care needs in both countries. In this group, people with a higher SES have the highest likelihood of experiencing unmet care needs. For older people with many care needs, we find country-specific SES patterns that we link to cultural differences and the design of the LTCSs. In Germany, SES is negatively associated with using informal care and positively with using formal care. In England, care use shows little SES variation for older people with many care needs. The findings underscore the importance of considering the intensity of care needs when assessing inequalities in care access.