Socio-cultural Importance Research Articles

Historical analysis of the Socio-Cultural Significance of the Saraiki Region Multan during Sultanate of Delhi Period

Multan is considered one of the important historical cities of the Saraiki region through ages. The city is alive from thousands of years from and a major part of Indus civilization. The socio-cultural position od Multan recognized the most prominent during the Sultanate period of Delhi. Although it has seen many ups and downs and faced various governments. It also remained as a cradle of civilizations which had been grown in this area and Multan remained as the center of all these civilizations. It remained an important trade center between Harrpa and Mohenjo-Daro in the past. The mighty Indus civilization had been also great linkage with Multan. Multan remained important area from initial era to till Muslim invasion in Sindh. During the 1st Muslim Turkish rule in northern India Multan was occupied by Mehmmod of Ghazna and later it was an important part of Sultanate of Delhi. Several major dynasties and families govern at Multan. With political role Multan also has important socio-cultural importance during through ages. During ancient time it was also called as BAIT-UL-ZAHAB the house of gold due wealthy city. This research paper highlights the socio-cultural and political significance of Saraiki region Multan during the Sultanate period 1206-1526.

Festival Internazionale Del Cinema Sordo. Un festival per tutt

Starting from a definition of deaf cinema as an artistic product created by and with deaf people, Francesca Di Meo (Istituto Statale Sordi, Rome) describes the fascinating reality of Cinedeaf Festival, the biggest archive of deaf cinema in Europe. All films are subtitled in Italian and English and all live events are translated into Italian Sign Language, International Sign Language and subtitled live. Di Meo also highlights the socio-cultural importance of this festival in terms of audience development and public engagement.

Ethnobotanical Uses of Non-cultivated Edible Fruit Species in the Department of Oussouye (South Senegal)

Forests are an immense reservoir of biological resources and provide the local population with subsistence needs, especially for edible fruits. This study contributes to a better knowledge of the use modes of non-cultivate edible plant species in the area of Kasa, traditional name for the department of Oussouye. Ethnobotanical surveys, based on an interview guide, oral discussions and direct observations were conducted among 178 people from the department of Oussouye, stronghold of the Diola ethnic group. A factorial correspondence analysis highlighted the relationship between species and categories of use. The frequency of citation, informant consensus factor and use value showed the socio-cultural importance of the species. The data collected identified 62 edible species divided into 31 families and 54 genera. The fruit species inventoried are used for different purposes. They are a food source with 62% of citations, energetic 19%, technological 14%, medicinal 13%, cultural 6% and agronomic 2% for the populations. Two species stand out for their high use value factor (UVt). These were Elaeis guineensis (12.24) and Borassus aethiopum (7.56). In addition to their use value, species such as Mangifera indica, Neocarya macrophylla, Parkia biglobosa, Anacardium occidentale, Ceiba pentandra, Parinari excelsa, stood out for their categories and organs used. These results inform us about the level of use of fruit species for different needs and open up avenues for research in sustainable management of this resource with the aim of reducing poverty.

The analysis of sociocultural importance of the Chinese traditional game “Promoting Officials”

The subject of this research is an ancient Chinese board game “Promoting Officials” (Shengguan Tu), which has a history of more than a thousand years. Unfortunately, after the overthrow of the monarchical structure in 1911, this game gradually ceased to be played. The “Promoting Officials” can be referred to as the game of chance, and its rules remind of the modern game “Monopoly”. Two or more players take turns to roll the dice, which decide whether to move forward or step back. The winner is the one who first reaches the center, position tai shi – mentor of the emperor, grand preceptor. The relevance of this work is substantiated by the absence of research on this cultural phenomenon within the Russian science. The study is based mostly on authentic materials in the Chinese language. The author highlights the connection of the game with the historical era, social structure, hierarchy of state service, education and upbringing of youth, the Confucian doctrine prevalent in the Chinese society. The main conclusions consists in recognition that the board game “Shengguan Tu” played an important role in strengthening the cult of education among youth and regards to the government bureaucratic apparatus. This game also resembles the folk wisdom of the Chinese people.

Agricultural Heritage Landscapes of Greece: Three Case Studies and Strategic Steps towards Their Acknowledgement, Conservation and Management

United Nation Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the European Green Deal and the new Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) are legislative proposals counting on rural and agricultural landscapes to assist climate change mitigation, ecosystem services and preservation of heritage. Agricultural landscapes take up more than 10% of the earth’s land surface (1.5 billion ha), presenting a continuous field of interaction between man and nature, shaping the earth’s epidermis since antiquity. The Mediterranean basin is one of the most evident places on earth exhibiting this relationship, between the anthropogenic and the natural, hosting lands of enormous ecological, economic and cultural value. With Greece’s economy being based largely on agriculture in the past, traditional Greek agricultural landscapes present great socio-cultural importance; those landscapes, managed appropriately, could dynamically help combat climate issues, continue to provide services of high value and also present local character, tradition and culture. Yet, the acknowledgement of agricultural heritage, the creation of mixed productive socio-ecological profiles and the realization of governance schemes towards agricultural connections, such as linking traditional agricultural practices to the wider anthropogenic, ecological and recreational services, are in their infancy for many countries worldwide, including Greece. Landscape heritage is considered as important as archaeological and architectural heritage. In this paper, three examples of high importance Agricultural Heritage Landscapes (AHLs) are presented: the masticulture in Chios island; the black (Corinthian) raisin vineyards in Aigialeia (Egialia), Peloponnese; and the olive groves of Thassos island. Their importance is analyzed and strategic steps towards their acknowledgement, conservation and appropriate management are presented.

Recognising and ReconstitutingGàidheilEthnicity

This article analyses some claims made about the Gàidheal identity in Scotland, with particular reflection on a distinct ‘sociolinguistic turn’ within Gàidhlig studies and related research over the last two decades. Through critical analysis of a major sociological survey on the structuring of various markers in framing Gàidheal identity, a normative basis is provided to then assess other identity classifications made by some academics whose work is focussed on the single identity-marker of the Gàidhlig language. It is argued that identity claims predicated on the specific nature of the Gàidhlig sociolinguistic turn fail to capture the complex reality and living histories of actual Gàidheal identities (and claims on those identities), in particular, the socio-cultural importance of place-based practices and understandings. Recent proposals for a Gàidheal ethnolinguistic assembly may enable modes of articulation and recognition to develop which better capture those realities, as well as supporting societal and linguistic regeneration among the indigenous group.

Save the wave: RTÉ longwave 252 and the ageing Irish diaspora in the United Kingdom

Despite radio’s increased digitalization over the past two decades, Ireland’s public service broadcaster Raidió Teilifís Éireann (RTÉ) disseminates a transmission of its flagship Radio 1 service across Ireland and the United Kingdom via the longwave 252 kHz (LW252) facility – a service that is enjoyed largely by the elderly members of the Irish diaspora. The proposed shutdown of this longwave service was met with anger and consternation from listeners who rely on the service as their ‘connection to home’. LW252 offers expats news, public discourse and cultural content that helps shape listeners’ cultural identity that can become strained or eroded over time. Drawing from interviews with audience members, this article offers an examination of transnational radio audiences to better understand the value of engagement with mediatic services and the benefits derived. The article highlights the immense sociocultural importance of radio’s output and offers recommendations for how RTÉ can shift audiences to digital alternatives.

Use and traditional management of Galea spixii (Wagler 1831) and Kerodon rupestris (Wied-Neuwied 1820) in the municipalities of Pau dos Ferros, Encanto, and Francisco Dantas (northeastern Brazil)

This study aimed to identify the forms of use (knowledge and current use) and traditional management of two rodent species reared as pets: Galea spixii (Wagler 1831) and Kerodon rupestris (Wied-Neuwied 1820), popularly known as “prea” and “moco,” respectively. This case study was carried out in the Caatinga biome, in the state of Rio Grande do Norte (northeastern, Brazil). Residents of rural communities were interviewed regarding their knowledge of these species, as well as the purposes for which they use these animals. The data were obtained through semi-structured questionnaires addressing questions on the purposes of use, current use, and issues on biological and ecological knowledge of these species. Four purposes of use (food, rearing, zootherapeutic, and artisanal) were recorded for both species, which are currently used for food and rearing purposes. Their management is performed outside their natural environment, according to their peculiarities. This type of analysis is essential to understanding the sociocultural importance of these animals, in addition to providing data that can be used in wild species conservation plans if their populations in natural habitats decline due to environmental or exploitation factors.

Evaluation of Water Quality in the Lower Huallaga River Watershed using the Grey Clustering Analysis Method

Currently, the evaluation of water quality is a topic of global interest, due to its socio-cultural, environmental and economic importance, but in recent years this quality is deteriorating due to inadequate management in the conservation, disposal and use of water by the competent authorities, private-state entities and the population itself. An alternative to determine the quality of a water body in an integrated manner is the Grey Clustering Method, which was used in this study taking as an indicator the Prati Quality Index, with the objective of making an objective analysis of the quality of the water bodies under study. The case study is the Lower Watershed of the Huallaga River, located between the region of Loreto and San Martin, along which 12 monitoring stations were established to evaluate its surface water quality, through the analysis of 7 parameters: pH, BOD, COD, Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Ammonia Nitrogen, Substrates and Nitrates. Finally, it was determined that the water quality of eleven monitoring stations in the Lower Huallaga River Watershed are within the "Uncontaminated" category, while one monitoring station is within the "Highly Contaminated" category of the Prati Index, this due to its proximity to a landfill. The results obtained in this study, could be useful for the authorities responsible for the protection and sustainable conservation of the Huallaga River Watershed, in order to propose appropriate measures to improve its quality, additionally, this study could be a reference for future studies since the proposed method allowed to prioritize the quality level of the water bodies and identify critical areas.

King Cobra and snakebite envenomation: on the natural history, human-snake relationship and medical importance of Ophiophagus hannah.

King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) has a significant place in many cultures, and is a medically important venomous snake in the world. Envenomation by this snake is highly lethal, manifested mainly by neurotoxicity and local tissue damage. King Cobra may be part of a larger species complex, and is widely distributed across Southeast Asia, southern China, northern and eastern regions as well as the Western Ghats of India, indicating potential geographical variation in venom composition. There is, however, only one species-specific King Cobra antivenom available worldwide that is produced in Thailand, using venom from the snake of Thai origin. Issues relating to the management of King Cobra envenomation (e.g., variation in the composition and toxicity of the venom, limited availability and efficacy of antivenom), and challenges faced in the research of venom (in particular proteomics), are rarely addressed. This article reviews the natural history and sociocultural importance of King Cobra, cases of snakebite envenomation caused by this species, current practice of management (preclinical and clinical), and major toxinological studies of the venom with a focus on venom proteomics, toxicity and neutralization. Unfortunately, epidemiological data of King Cobra bite is scarce, and venom proteomes reported in various studies revealed marked discrepancies in details. Challenges, such as inconsistency in snake venom sampling, varying methodology of proteomic analysis, lack of mechanistic and antivenomic studies, and controversy surrounding antivenom use in treating King Cobra envenomation are herein discussed. Future directions are proposed, including the effort to establish a standard, comprehensive Pan-Asian proteomic database of King Cobra venom, from which the venom variation can be determined. Research should be undertaken to characterize the toxin antigenicity, and to develop an antivenom with improved efficacy and wider geographical utility. The endeavors are aligned with the WHO´s roadmap that aims to reduce the disease burden of snakebite by 50% before 2030.

An Analysis on Area Production and Productivity of Banana in Assam

Background: Banana (Musa Paradisicia) is considered as one of the most important fruit crop across the globe. India is the largest producer of banana in the world with an output of 29 million tons per year on average. Assam, a state in the north eastern region of India, is one of the major banana producing state in the country. Banana is an important horticulture crop grown in Assam with some significant socio cultural importance. The production of banana in Assam accounts for 2.4 per cent of its total production in the country.Methods: The paper is an attempt to study the rate of growth and instability of area, production and productivity of banana cultivation in Assam and to compute the relative contribution of area, productivity and their interaction to the change in production of banana in the state. The study is based on secondary data for the period of 2003-04 to 2017-18. Compound annual growth rates are computed for estimating the growth trends of area, production and productivity of banana in Assam whereas Cuddy-Della Valle index of instability is used to estimate the instability.Result: The results of this study revealed positive growth in area, production and productivity of banana with low instability in the state. The productivity effect has been found marginally greater than the area effect on production of banana in the state during the reference period.

Mapping spatial distribution of genetic resources of kola (Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott & Endl.) in Ghana and collection of germplasm for conservation, characterization and development of improved varieties

Kola (Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott & Endl.) is a tree crop of great economic and socio-cultural importance. Available genetic resources of kola are increasingly vulnerable to genetic erosion due to decreased population sizes resulting from land use changes and cutting of trees for timber and firewood production. There is therefore an urgent need to conserve genetic resources of kola in Ghana. The objective of this research was to map distribution, ascertain status of collection and conservation of kola in Ghana and to collect germplasm from mapped provenances for characterization and breeding of improved varieties. Mapping of distribution of kola was carried out by undertaking trips to kola growing areas in Ghana. Transects were constructed and an inventory of C. nitida was carried out using GPS. The geo-references were interpolated into the map of Ghana using ArcGIS software. The spatial analysis showed Jasikan, Akaa, Ahamasu, Ampeyo, Pampawie, Oyoko, Akwadum, Jejeti, Atwedie, Kwahu, Asuom, Tweapease, Kade, Twifo Praso, Assin Fosu, Ntafrewaso, Hemang, Jamasi, Kona, Bipoa, Offinso, Akumadan and Aframcho as the areas with a dense natural populations of C. nitida. The current knowledge and understanding of distribution of kola resources provides opportunity to have a comprehensive collection of genetic resources of kola in Ghana. This aided in collection of 102 new accessions from 22 provenances in the Volta and Eastern regions of Ghana. This in addition to 226 earlier collections constitute 328 accessions of C. nitida in Ghana. The evaluation and understanding of diversity of these kola resources could offer yet-unknown traits of high economic value for further domestication and development of improved varieties.

The socio-cultural significance of mineral licks to the Maijuna of the Peruvian Amazon: implications for the sustainable management of hunting

BackgroundThe overhunting of wild species is a major threat to biodiversity in the Amazon; yet, managed, sustainable hunting is widely considered part of the solution to conserving wildlife populations. Hunting is both a culturally important activity for Indigenous people and provides an important food source. Mineral licks, a focal point of hunting in Amazonia, are naturally occurring areas in the forest where animals come to obtain essential minerals or clays that are thought to neutralize plant-based alkaloids. We sought to better understand the socio-cultural importance of mineral licks to the Maijuna Indigenous group to inform the sustainable management of this habitat and associated wildlife populations.MethodsSemi-structured interviews, focus groups, and participatory mapping were carried out with hunters to assess the significance of mineral licks and their associated animal resources as well as to determine how the relationship that the Maijuna have with mineral licks has changed over time.ResultsMineral licks are culturally significant and useful to the Maijuna in a variety of ways. Hunters target these areas year-round both during the day and night, and animals killed are consumed for subsistence and sold to generate income. The spatial use of mineral licks across the landscape is determined on the generational family level, with families maintaining exclusive use of selected mineral licks and excluding access by other hunters. The Maijuna also have traditional beliefs for why animals visit mineral licks, which is linked to the traditional Maijuna story of the creation of the first tapir. The relationship that the Maijuna have with mineral licks has changed considerably over time, which is observed through changes in hunting technologies and methods as well as the loss of traditional knowledge and beliefs.ConclusionsTraditional and current Maijuna hunting conventions, in which families maintain exclusive use of selected mineral licks, likely reduce the probability of overexploitation of animal populations. Community-based management plans for mineral licks in Maijuna lands and beyond must incorporate and account for the multiple cultural and economic needs of local communities while also striving toward ecological sustainability. Country-wide strategies to conserving forests and using them sustainably should aim to ensure land tenure for rural peoples and encourage management that incorporates traditional sustainable hunting conventions.

Negotiations of a Woman’s Self: Liminal Experiences and Dialogic Reconsiderations in Anna Banti’s Un grido lacerante

This article focuses on the authorial figure in Anna Banti’s last work, Un grido lacerante. An introspective portrait of an aging author whose life and career have been shaped by remorse over a lost vocation, the novel has traditionally been interpreted as an expression of the autobiographical and historical dimension of Banti’s work. Moving away from notions of self-confessional narratives in favor of an analysis of textual strategies, this study investigates the role of the protagonist within a self-research that opens up to shared experiences and problems of existential, interpersonal and socio-cultural importance. This universalist focus engages in particular Bakhtin’s concepts of dialogic construction and narrative space-time. While the “chronotope” of the threshold encloses the liminality of the protagonist between contradictory identities and inclinations, the idea of a “dialogic self” accentuates the function of this unresolved intermediate position in promoting a subject that is negotiated in relation to internal and external constraints. By formulating an unconventional idea of self and a narrative that develops in a fragmentary and contradictory way to overcome the limits of its own fiction, the novel confronts the constraints women face in pursuing their inclinations and aspirations and addresses issues of a more humanistic nature concerning the right to construct and define one’s own identity independently of conceptions and norms of gender behaviour.

Diversity of wild edible plants traditionally used by the Galo tribe of Indian Eastern Himalayan state of Arunachal Pradesh

Wild edible plants are found very useful in the fulfilment of food and nutritional requirements. Because of the availibity and cultural preference, the consumption of these plants among the tribes is high. To find out the diversity, utilisation pattern and sociocultural importance of the wild plants, a study was conducted in the state of Arunachal Pradesh selecting the Galo tribe, and accordingly the wild edible plants consumed are documented here. Data were collected through extensive field surveys and interviews with the community in the selected 12 villages in Upper Subansiri and West Siang districts of Arunachal Pradesh. Overall, 125 wild edible plant species under 99 genera and 54 families are reported. These species are consumed mostly as leafy vegetables, fruits, medicine, spices and condiments and as a substitute to food grains. The Urticaceae with ten species is the most utilised family followed by Asteraceae, Moraceae and Lamiaceae with at least five species in each. Herbs with 47 species were found to be the most dominant growth form followed by trees with 44 species. Based on parts used leaves with 66 species were recorded to be the most used plant parts followed by fruits. The highest edibility index of 50 % was reported in Solanum americanum. The analysis of relative frequency of citation revealed that total 78 species exhibits more than 0.50 relative frequency of citation value with highest value in Pouzolzia hirta (0.95). It has been found that the wild plant resources play a vital role in the socio-economic aspects of the Galo tribe.

Nutritional and social contribution of meat in diets: Interplays among young urban and rural men

Considering the recent increase in the demand for meat and its subsequent implications for health and food security, there is an increasing need to explore its nutritional and social importance among young men in settings experiencing nutrition transition. A better understanding of meat in the diets of this group could contribute to the design of socio-culturally appropriate interventions to improve healthy eating, as these men are key decision makers in family food choices. This mixed-methods study aimed to assess the nutritional and social contribution of meat in the diet of young adult men in urban and rural Zambia. A food frequency questionnaire, multiple pass 24-h dietary recall, anthropometric measurements and a socio-demographic questionnaire were utilized while qualitative interviews explored the socio-cultural importance of meat consumption. Rural and urban participants had an isocaloric diet. All macronutrient intakes except carbohydrates were significantly higher in the urban population than the rural population (p < 0.01). Zinc intake was significantly greater in the urban than the rural sample (χ2 (39) = 40, p-value = 0.04). Except for vitamin A, calcium and folate, participants met the recommendations for all micronutrients. Regardless of being rural or urban, the higher the participant's level of education, the weaker the socio-cultural importance of meat. In both settings, increased consumption of meat was associated with prosperity, authority and respect within society. There are strong social and cultural beliefs among participants about meat consumption, reflecting the symbolic meaning in their customs. These findings could help improve the design and implementation of dietary interventions, incorporating specific cultural beliefs and socio-economic factors in the targeted population, to achieve healthy eating practices.

The Lifecycle of Pottery Art Processes and Production in Mpraeso, Ghana

The production of traditional earthenware is a prehistorical/archaeological and historical practice among women in Mpraeso, in the Eastern Region of Ghana. Although pottery has been a vibrant industry in Mpraeso since prehistorical and historical times, there is little known research or published literature regarding the raw materials used, the lifecycle of the production process, the tools of potting, and the socio-cultural and economic importance of the art. This study investigated the raw materials used, production techniques, and the socio-cultural and economic significance of pottery in Mpraeso to elucidate knowledge on pottery production by women and the symbolism and taboos around making pottery in Mpraeso. The cross-sectional study utilised qualitative techniques to collect data from women potters. The results are presented based on themes related to production processes. Production tools are local rudimentary objects, mostly of wood and metal, and production materials are of two kinds: clay materials and grog extracted from the locality. Pots are formed by the coiling method and open-fired. The pots are used for many domestic chores and for funerals, among other uses. Potting is a primary economic activity for women in Mpraeso. The industry needs to be developed in view of the role it plays in Mpraeso, as it promotes the transmission of culture and the art of pottery production and stimulates the local economy of Ghana.

Too big to handle, too important to abandon: Reforming Sudan’s Gezira scheme

Participatory irrigation management (PIM) has been broadly promoted by public administrators and donor organizations. The reasons for this push include performance failures of state-controlled irrigation schemes and the need to improve irrigation productivity for meeting rising food demands. A popular reform for increasing participation and ownership is represented by Irrigation Management Transfers (IMTs). IMTs mean replacing the government with the civil society (farmers) in irrigation management, and they go beyond working with the public sector as in PIM. These widely implemented reforms produced mixed experiences. Besides, the evaluation of IMT cases is reliant on scarce quantitative data. IMTs are also difficult to replicate due to methodological issues. However, qualitative research can engage with stakeholders’ perceptions and narratives, especially the most relevant target group, namely farmers. We provide in this study stakeholders’ opinions and attitudes towards several waves of IMT reforms in the Gezira scheme in Sudan. This mega-scheme is of high developmental and socio-cultural importance for the country ever since the independence from the British Empire. Using a perception survey and in-depth interviews with key informants, we illustrate the failure legacies to reform the Gezira scheme by enhancing farmers’ participation through Water User Associations (WUAs). While both farmers and experts have suggested a poor implementation, inadequate farmers’ involvement and unclear objectives of the reforms, the reforms’ recurrent failures are explained within complex historic and political contexts. There are long-standing legacies of development missteps of the Gezira scheme, with no clear and ultimate triggers of performance deterioration. Besides, splits in professional cultures, power imbalances, political instrumentalization (of farmers) and the lack of farmers’ awareness or capacities are salient factors for understanding the poor state of the Gezira scheme. It is difficult for stand-alone irrigation management reforms to be successful. Such reforms need to be embedded within a comprehensive policy package that prioritizes irrigation governance and proposes sound regulations based on clear roles, consensus-making and prior consultation.

Fame, Obscurity and Power Laws in Music History

This paper investigates the processes leading to musical fame or obscurity, whether for composers, performers, or works themselves. It starts from the observation that the patterns of success, across many historical music datasets, follow a similar mathematical relationship known as a power law, often with an exponent approximately equal to two. It presents several simple models which can produce power law distributions. An examination of these models' transience characteristics suggests parallels with some historical music examples, giving clues to the ways that success and obscurity might emerge in practice and the extent to which success might be influenced by inherent musical quality. These models can be seen as manifestations of a more fundamental process resulting from the law of maximum entropy, subject to a constraint on the average value of the logarithm of the success measure. This implies that musical success is a multiplicative quality, and suggests that musical markets operate to strike a balance between familiarity (socio-cultural importance) and novelty (individual importance). The common power law exponent of two is seen to emerge as a consequence of the tendency for musical activity to be spread evenly across the log-success bands.

A community-based survey of mammals in the Río Sapo basin, El Salvador

Introduction: El Salvador is one of the most densely populated and most deforested countries of the American continent, where social insecurity make field research difficult. Here we present an experience in which rural and indigenous communities were part of a mammal survey. Objectives: To identify the mammals of Río Sapo basin, and establish the potential of local communities in scientific studies of mammals in El Salvador. Methods: We studied 17 sites in Joateca and Arambala, Río Sapo basin; 14 volunteers were organized, including local former hunters, forest owners, indigenous communities, and researchers. Fieldwork was done from August 2018 to December 2019. Mammals were identified during field visits and with camera traps. We also included the socio-cultural importance of wildlife within the Kakawira-Lenca indigenous worldview. Results: Twenty-two species were identified, including six that are threatened or endangered. We expanded the local range of Tamandua mexicana and Pecari tajacu for the department of Morazán, also, we added Glaucomys volans to the country's species list. We list traditional uses of mammals of the Kakawira-Lenca culture and report the indigenous names of 15 species. Conclusion: The participation of local communities is a valid option for field work in El Salvador, and probably in other areas where social insecurity makes field research dangerous.