Levels Of Social Analysis Research Articles

Trust, accountability and ‘the Other’ within the charitable context: U.K. service clubs and grant‐making activity

AbstractThe third sector encompasses many types of not‐for‐profit organisations (NPOs). This results in a diverse sector, where accountabilities vary and are complex. In this paper, we explore notions of accountability at the micro level of social analysis, between individuals, and enacted through social interaction. We aim to provide detail on how accountability is enacted at this level of analysis, and the role(s) of trust (if any) in this form of accountability. We employ a theoretical framework incorporating the theoretical constructs of accountability, trust and ‘the Other’, with additional support derived from literature that specifically discusses the relationship(s) between accountability, the Other and wider ethics. We employ a qualitative methodological framework, with two sources of data. The primary source of data included 42 semi‐structured interviews conducted with service club members, along with representatives of donor organisations, beneficiary organisations and local government. In addition, documentary evidence was utilised in support of the primary data gathered. Following the application of qualitative data analysis techniques, we conclude that, at the micro level of social analysis, trust and accountability are intertwined concepts. We observed that the main mechanism for the discharge of accountability was via the formation and maintenance of personal relationships between members of the service club and key external stakeholders. We also conclude that charity offers individuals a means by which to particularise aspects of the Other, through the undertaking of charitable action. Within this particularisation process, facilitated by connecting with other individuals, accountability not only takes a different form than more hierarchical forms of accountability, but also serves to build interconnectedness between individuals, and provide satisfaction of the desire for the Other in volunteers and stakeholders alike.

The Effects of Transaction Costs on Investor Sentiment: Evidence from the Nigerian Electricity Service Industry

Privatisation of the Nigerian Electricity Service Industry represents a bold first step on a multi-dimensional journey to social and economic development. Significant challenges remain to be overcome. This paper examines the reforms through the lens of New Institutional Economics in order to determine how weak institutions have so far confounded seasoned local investors and international advisors, by looking for the presence of excessive transaction costs. The reform environment is based on Williamsons 4 levels of social analysis and subjected to evaluation based on four areas deemed critical for reform success, namely property rights, market structure, conflict resolution mechanisms and policy implementation capabilities. The study is restricted to investors in electricity distribution companies, and the presence of high transaction costs used as proxy for institutions in need of further improvement. The study finds that providing quality asset performance data and changing a culture that tacitly accept electricity theft and late bill payment, will reduce the transaction costs associated with defining and protecting Investors property rights. However, the regulatory environment must mature to enjoy the confidence of government, consumers and investors, who continue to remain optimistic.

A misfit in policy to protect Russia’s black soil region. An institutional analytical lens applied to the ban on burning of crop residues

Russia’s region of Chernozem and Kastanozem soils in Western-Siberia, where this study focused on the Kulunda steppe, has great potential as a carbon sink, particularly if the current widespread practice of burning crop residue can be replaced with conservation tillage practices that will return the residue to the soil. Environmentally-oriented land use policy measures have been introduced that could accomplish that goal. But these measures are quite recent, and face obstacles in the prevailing post-socialist institutional environment and in cultural norms.This paper explores factors influencing implementation effectiveness of policies that support prevention of soil erosion and nutrient loss. We refer to Williamson’s four levels of social analysis, and thereby add to it a dynamic component, illuminating the timeframe required for changing the criteria under investigation. A case study in the Kulunda steppe (Altai krai) with 24 semi-structured interviews revealed that critical factors affecting soil protection policy implementation exist at all levels of social interaction.We use one example of a Russian regulatory measure − the ban on crop residue burning − to explore and systematize critical socio-economic, administrative and institutional factors that diminish the impact of such a command-and-control regulation. Credible monitoring and sanctioning to implement the ban turned out to be almost impossible. Farmers’ beliefs about the positive effects of burning on the soil could not be changed by short-term administrative regulations, and there are no alternative off-field uses for the residue. This empirical study shows that information provision and subsidies for voluntary conservation tillage practices are likely to be more effective measures to counter soil degradation than the residue-burning ban.

Complicating Patriotism in the Elementary Grades: An Examination of Rugg and Krueger's Overlooked Textbooks

In the late 1930s several prominent self-described patriotic groups attacked social studies pioneer Harold Rugg as “un-American.” The largest instance of textbook censorship in American history unfolded. Yet little attention was given (and continues to be given by scholars) to Rugg's elementary textbooks that he wrote with Louise Krueger. This article examines Rugg and Krueger's complete “Elementary Series” in light of the un-American criticisms levied at Rugg. It documents how, despite critics’ claims, the books were immediately celebratory of the United States and its people, teaching a traditional patriotism that casts the nation as the supreme level of social analysis through an unquestioning, best-story approach. Furthermore, it shows how the books lack Rugg's justice-oriented philosophy of the “American Problem.” The article concludes by charging elementary social studies teachers, teacher educators, and researchers to consider critical questions related to the teaching of patriotism in the elementary grades.

From ‘Entering into a Firm’ to ‘Entering into a Profession’: An Anthropological Approach to Changing Personhood in Japan

AbstractDrawing on extensive ethnographic fieldwork, the article uses discourse analysis to examine the social dynamics involved in the construction of personhood in Japan. While the gap between powerful discourse and lived reality is a well‐documented phenomenon, there is little systematic empirical research on how to integrate individual and social levels of analysis in this process. By contrasting discourse from above and from below, the article illuminates power asymmetry and the resulting tension between discursive freedom and social exclusion among disadvantaged groups.

Social communication model of pain.

Clinicians and researchers are challenged to understand the dynamic interplay among biological, psychological, and social determinants of pain. The social communication model,2,8 (Fig. 1), provides an inclusive framework for organizing and considering these facets and their relationships. Understanding any episode of pain, acute or chronic, requires grasping the broad picture and details at biological, psychological, and social levels of analysis. The social communication model of pain specifies necessary domains to be attended to in the education of researchers and practitioners.1,16 Innovative features (1) A painful event chronology is provided: episodes of pain unfold over time, involving status of the individual before the event, perception of pain, personal expression, and the appraisal and actions of observers, with each phase responsive to preceding events. Reciprocal, recursive, and dynamic influences are acknowledged. Different colors are used to attract attention to the importance of each phase. (2) Social determinants of pain are explicitly acknowledged in human and nonhuman animals.10 (3) A clear distinction is made between historical and current biological and social determinants: (a) Intrapersonal: people bring dispositions to react based on their biological, psychological, and social histories. (b) Current setting: the immediate social and physical environment within which pain is suffered has a powerful impact on both the person in pain and potential caregivers. Timeline with illustrations of research Antecedents People are predisposed to react in variable ways when in pain, for example, through biological priming or adaptation, and trait-like dispositions, including fear of pain and catastrophising.15 Pain prevention or amelioration strategies are possible and important. Pain experience Biological substrates for the perception of pain have been a heavy focus for research and medical interventions. Life history has a potent impact. Socialization in unique familial/ethnic environments determines the meaning and affective understandings of pain.6,11 Pain expression Although pain is inherently private, behavioral activity permits observer inferences.13–15 Some features of pain reactions are spontaneous and reflexive, whereas others reflect conscious deliberation.3 Expressions of pain are often modulated (eg, enhanced or suppressed) with considerable sensitivity to the audience and social milieu.3,12 Decoding pain expression Displays of pain command the attention of observers, leading to spontaneous neurophysiological reactions,4 reflexive distress, reflective appraisal, and the potential for empathy and clinical judgment.7,9 Experience with pain, professional histories, and personal characteristics, including biases, influence dispositions to attend, recognize, and understand the experience of others.3,5 Action The appraisal of pain drives decisions to deliver care. Clinicians with personal commitments, indifferent bystanders, and enemies would be expected to react differently. Professional training and institutional best practices invariably constrain service delivery. Social, economic, and physical ecological contexts of care delivery The contexts of community caring, professional standards of practice, institutional structures and policies, health care delivery systems, the research enterprise, and political systems all have powerful influences on how people care for others in pain.

Vernacular accountings: Bridging the cognitive and the social in the analysis of employee-generated accounting systems

We unpack the concept of “informal accounting systems” and bracket “vernacular accountings” based on the modality and source of legitimacy of such systems. Vernacular accountings are accounting and control systems that are self-generated by organizational actors in the context of their work and not officially sanctioned within the organizational hierarchy. We argue that these systems capture actionable knowledge from the epistemic perspective of their users. We identify three ideal types of vernacular accountings: vernacular accountings as an inventory of knowledge that employees construct to meet their task specific information needs; vernacular accountings as a defensive resource constructed and used by employees who resist or do not trust the formally sanctioned systems; and, vernacular accountings as organizational practice that has both pragmatic and epistemic functions and that facilitates distributed cognition. Drawing on an epistemic perspective that spans cognitive and social levels of analysis we develop theoretical propositions on the emergence and use of these three types of vernacular accountings.

Elder mistreatment, ageism, and human rights

Elder mistreatment, social ageism, and human rights are increasingly powerful discourses in positioning older people in society, yet the relationship between them has rarely been subjected to critical investigation. This perceived relationship will have implications for how mistreatment is understood and responded to. Critical gerontological approach based on narrative and textual analysis. Reports of public attitudes toward mistreatment suggest that it is thought to be more common than scientific evidence would suggest; however, reporting is much lower than prevalence. While the discourse over mistreatment has tended to focus on interpersonal relationships, ageism has emphasized social attitudes, and human rights have concentrated on relations between the state and the individual. In this paper, a series of models have been examined which mark a tendency to restrict and then attempt to reintegrate individual, interpersonal, and social levels of analysis. It is concluded that a focus on the processes of transaction across boundaries rather than contents would facilitate both integrative modeling and deeper understanding of the qualities of abusive situations.

Social neuroscience: The social brain, oxytocin, and health

Complex social behaviors allow various social organisms to create emergent organizations that extend beyond the individual. Social neuroscience is a burgeoning field that strives to understand the genetic, hormonal, and neural mechanisms responsible for these social structures and behaviors. Consequently, social neuroscience is highly interdisciplinary in nature and embraces the application of methods ranging from the molecular to the molar to investigate the reciprocal interactions between biological, cognitive, and social levels of analysis. The broad scope of such an endeavor introduces particular challenges associated with the integration of multiple levels of analysis. In the present mini-review, we highlight some recent findings in the field of social neuroscience and demonstrate the potential benefits of applying multilevel integrative analysis to the study of social behavior and its influence on physiology and health.

Revisiting Creativity Research: An Investigation of Contemporary Approaches

In this study, contemporary creativity research was investigated by conducting an analysis of dissertation abstracts. Keywords relating to creativity were used to collect a sample from an online database. The abstracts were coded by discipline, research aspect (trait, process, or product), social level of analysis (individual, group, organization, or culture), and research approach (empirical vs. theoretical; quantitative vs. qualitative). Classification trees were built to explore the relationships between disciplines and their terminology, research aspect and social level of analysis. The results show that the terms creativity and innovation are used interchangeably by some disciplines, and diverse creativity research in terms of aspect and social level are produced within single disciplines. Besides indicating that disciplines overlap in their activity, these findings suggest new trends in research aspects and social levels.

Emotion and Emotion Regulation: Integrating Individual and Social Levels of Analysis

Rimé makes the important observation that the literature on adult emotion and emotion regulation has largely focused on the individual level of analysis. He argues, we believe correctly, that emotion research would benefit by addressing the fact that emotional events provoke not only individual responses, but systematic social responses as well. We present examples of our own research that are in accord with Rimé's central claims, and that demonstrate the benefits of considering the goals that are provoked and satisfied by emotions, as well as the social context of emotional responding. We conclude by advocating a dynamic systems approach that would allow an integration of individual and social levels of analysis in the study of adult emotion and emotion regulation.

Occupation and Social Complexity

Applications of complexity science, including dynamic systems and chaos theories, have become ever‐present in the social sciences. Diverse academic fields have begun to explore their central constructs from a complexity perspective. Occupational science has also begun to discover complexity science as an explanatory framework to aid in the study of occupation. Theoretical models, principles and empirical findings from a number of scholars of occupation suggest that the tenets of complexity may serve an important role in explicating the nature of occupation. However, applications of complexity science in the field of occupational science have almost exclusively focused on the system level of the human as a dynamic or chaotic system. In this article, I propose that the study of occupation should also be informed by adopting a social complexity perspective. This shift in analytic levels, in part, situates the study of occupation at the nexus of human‐to‐human interaction. Though a social level of analysis may restrict the attention given to any one individual, the resultant understanding of the manner by which individuals mutually influence each other via occupation would likely extend our views of the form, function and meaning of human occupation.

Analysing dominance relationships by sociometric methods—a plea for a more standardised and precise approach in farm animals

Social dominance is a multidimensional phenomenon occurring in all gregarious farm animals and finds its reflection in a dominance hierarchy. Hence, numerous studies have tried to analyse dominance relationships as well as to correlate outcoming results (mostly individual ranks) with other behavioural and/or physiological features of the animals. Although the concept of dominance, once established, has been developed continuously and several sociometric measures were cumulatively introduced, a consistent analysing approach has not been achieved, especially in farm animals. Thus, considerable inconsistencies in the used methodology may impair obtained results and interpretations. The present paper is a plea for a more standardised and complex approach when analysing dominance relationships, not only in farm animals. First, derived from a structural definition of dominance, we suggest in detail the preferably consistent use of appropriate sociometric measures at all social levels of analysis: the dyad as the starting level, the group as the highest level, and the individual as the basic level. Second, we applied this procedures in a case study to analyse social dominance in a group of dwarf goats ( n=12) and pigs ( n=10), respectively, to comparatively demonstrate benefits and problems of such an approach in two different farm animal species. It is concluded that the use of individual ranks is actually only reasonable when fundamental sociometric measures both at the dyadic level (e.g. percentage of dyads which have a significant asymmetric outcome) and at the group level (e.g. the strength of hierarchy) are successfully tested by statistical methods as also presented in this paper. The calculated sociometric measures deliver not only a more comprehensive “picture” of the social relationships within a group as simple ranks do, but also indicate possible reasons of differences in the behavioural development. For instance, whereas the dwarf goats maintained a quasi-linear dominance hierarchy over time with a high rate of overt agonistic behaviour, pigs after the establishment of their hierarchy showed a reduced agonistic behaviour which makes it questionable to calculate reliable sociometric measures. These species-dependent variations may be primarily caused by different kinds of the fighting behaviour in goats (i.e. ritualised, low costs) and pigs (i.e. more seriously, high costs). Overall, a more consistent and standardised approach of analysing social dominance in (farm) animals may improve the scientific value of single studies and makes it easier to compare various studies within a species and between species.

Gender in psychology.

Gender is increasingly understood as defining a system of power relations embedded in other power relations. Psychological research on gender-which has most often focused on analysis of sex differences, within-sex variability, and gender roles-has begun to incorporate this new understanding. By drawing on three resources, psychologists can make more rapid progress in understanding gender's significance for psychological processes: social science theories that link the individual and social levels of analysis; constructs (such as identity) that bridge the social and individual levels; and conceptual tools generated in feminist theory, perhaps especially intersectionality. We review these resources, cite active research programs that have employed them, and conclude by offering some practical suggestions about how to incorporate these resources into our research.

A Transdisciplinary Focus on Drug Abuse Prevention: An Introduction

This article introduces the scope of the Special Issue. A variety of scientific disciplines are brought together to establish theoretical integration of the arenas of drug use, misuse, “abuse,” and drug misuse prevention. Transdisciplinary scientific collaboration (TDSC) is utilized as a process of integration. Introductory comments regarding the strengths and limitations of TDSC are presented. Then, the relevance of genetics to substance misuse and substance misuse prevention is presented. Next, the relevance of cognition for prevention is discussed. Specifically, neurologically plausible distinctions in cognition and implicit cognition and their relevance for prevention are discussed. At a relatively molar social-level of analysis, social network theory, systems dynamic models, geographic information systems models, cultural psychology, and political science approaches to drug misuse and its prevention are introduced. The uses of both quantitative and qualitative statistical approaches to prevention are mentioned next. Finally, targeted prevention, bridging the efficacy-effectiveness gap, and a statement on overcoming disbalance round out the Special Issue. The bridges created will serve to propel drug misuse “prevention science” forward in the years to come. Advances in understanding etiological issues, translation to programs, and ecological fit of programming are desired results.

Integrating biological, behavioral, and social levels of analysis in early child development: progress, problems, and prospects.

Integration of noninvasive, biological measures into behavioral research has increased, but the interpretation of biobehavioral findings in relation to developmental outcomes is rarely straightforward. This commentary highlights the need for specific, theoretically derived hypotheses, multiple measures of behavioral and biological processes, and analytical strategies aimed at explaining interindividual differences in intraindividual change. It is suggested here that the next phase of biosocial research needs to move beyond description and toward development of mid-level theories that will enable researchers to specify, test, and refine hypotheses of how biobehavioral processes interact with social-contextual factors to influence development. These mid-level biosocial models will be necessary to determine whether individual differences in children's adrenocortical activity confer risk or resilience because of early or cumulative exposure to nonparental care.

Debates in Social Theory—Tensions in Sociocultural Theorizing

Sawyer (2002) criticizes as untenable the two foundational assumptions that allegedly characterize ‘socioculturalism’ (process ontology and inseparability of individual and social levels of analysis). While sympathizing with his aim, this comment challenges his construal of both assumptions, as well as his claim of analytic dualism as an alternative to the ‘unresolved tensions’ in sociocultural theory. A call is made to further this debate.

African-American Proverbs in Context (review)

Reviewed by: African-American Proverbs in Context Jacqueline Fulmer African-American Proverbs in Context. By Sw. Anand Prahlad. (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1996. Pp. xiv + 292, preface, appendix, notes, references, index.) Sw. Anand Prahlad's African-American Proverbs in Context builds on the best work done so far in the study of proverbs, in general, and of African American proverbs, specifically. More importantly, this study provides a well-crafted approach that I think will inspire further work. Combined with an overview of pertinent scholarship, the book offers comprehensive theory balanced with fieldwork. Prahlad provides a structure for a contextual analysis of proverbs that will aid many in this field of study. The opening chapter reviews past African American proverb studies, then introduces a blueprint for a more context-sensitive investigation of proverb use and function. Divided into two parts, the body of the book demonstrates the flexibility and effectiveness of Prahlad's theories. In the first section, he applies them to WPA records of interviews with ex-slaves, then to blues lyrics. The second section is devoted to analysis of materials gleaned from either Prahlad's fieldwork or the Folklore Archives at the University of California, Berkeley. Some of Prahlad's theoretical suggestions may strike readers as new, but he grounds them thoroughly in the context of past studies. Following the direction of recent work in proverb studies, he focuses on the "creativity of proverbial usage and . . . the opinion that proverbs should be considered creative performances rather than merely quotations" (p.5). He also eschews as unproductive the approach that treats proverbs as indices to national character. This approach, he finds, is based on "a priori notions and stereotypes rather than on any scientific or ethnographic investigation of cultures and behaviors" (p. 6) and underestimates the often paradoxical, contradictory, and iconoclastic nature of proverbs. Prahlad proposes a four-part model with which to discuss all the dimensions of proverb meaning, rather than treating them separately as others have done. The first three dimensions are (1) the "grammatical" or literal level; (2) the "situational" level, which is derived from a term used by Kirshenblatt-Gimblett and "designates the intent of the speaker in the particular context in which the proverb is spoken" (p. 24); and (3) "the group, or social, level," which involves shared social knowledge of the general meaning of a proverb. The fourth or [End Page 496] "symbolic" level extends beyond all the other dimensions, encompassing the personal and psychological importance of the proverbial item. Prahlad notes that this dimension has received little attention from proverb scholars, primarily because ethnographic and contextual work is essential to it. An example of the symbolic level of analysis is applied to the proverb, "An idle mind is the devil's workshop." For a woman who became pregnant before marriage, and heard it from her mother at the time, this proverb "might involve feelings of shame, fear, or abandonment" (p. 28). Another woman who remembers the proverb spoken laughingly by her mother "about a parent down the street," however, may recall a symbolic meaning dealing with "feelings of closeness and bonding," as well as a sense of being in the "in-group" (p.28). Prahlad notes that the WPA ex-slave interviews to which he applies his analysis necessarily lack the data for discussing this symbolic level of proverb meaning, since the informants are no longer available for questioning. In spite of this, "a knowledge of the other levels can assist in determining symbolic meanings when we encounter the same items later on in our study" (p. 44). While Prahlad considers it may be possible to compare instances and thereby ascertain the symbolic level of meaning, with these WPA transcripts, he mostly confines himself to the grammatical, situational, and social levels of analysis. Presumably, he has left the examination of the symbolic level of the ex-slave texts for some other project that could encompass a greater number of proverb texts than this introductory volume. I found the next section, "Proverbs in Blues Lyrics," not quite as persuasive a demonstration as the first and last two segments, as it contains even less data on those listening to the proverbs. However, I was...

The New Institutional Economics: Taking Stock, Looking Ahead

This paper examines the progressive development of the new institutional economics over the past quarter century. It begins by distinguishing four levels of social analysis, with special emphasis on the institutional environment and the institutions of governance. It then turns to some of the good ideas out of which the NIE works: the description of human actors, feasibility, firms as governance structures, and operationalization. Applications, including privatization, are briefly discussed. Its empirical successes, public policy applications, and other accomplishments notwithstanding, there is a vast amount of unfinished business.

Social and emotional development from a cultural perspective.

The study of social and emotional development is recognized for its complexity. To better understand developmental norms, and deviations thereof, researchers typically focus on individual (e.g., temperament), interactional (e.g., parenting behaviors), and relational (e.g., attachment, friendship) levels of analysis. Often forgotten, however, is the extent to which cultural beliefs and norms play a role in the interpretation of the acceptability of individual characteristics and the types and the ranges of interactions and relationships that are likely or permissible. This special issue comprises four sections in which culture is examined insofar as it relates to the aforementioned levels of social analysis: "Emotional Development," "Parenting and Parent-Child Relationships," "Social Cognition and Social Relationships," and "Social and Emotional Adjustment and Maladjustment." Each section is followed by a commentary.