Social Exchange Research Articles

Brand Love in the Scroll Economy: Emotional Dimensions of Online Consumer–Brand Engagement

Social media marketing has emerged as the most popular and highly effective marketing communication strategy for brands worldwide. Engagement and Reach are the new go-to solutions for start-ups and established brands. The study tactically analyses how social media engagement nurtures consumers’ love for brands and how much of a role brand love plays in the consumer-brand social media relationship. The study employs a close-ended, undisguised and structured questionnaire to collect data from a sample of 810 young individuals in Delhi NCR. Data analysis was performed using IBM SPSS Statistics 25 version, which used Spearman’s correlation coefficient statistic. Findings indicate that active participation behaviours such as brand content creation have strong ties with emotional brand attachment, suggesting deeper affective involvement. The study offers a nuanced understanding of the importance of emotional brands in social media spaces and contributes a multi-theoretical perspective of brand love, self-determination, social cognitive and social exchange theory. Brands using these insights to seek and nurture loyalty and advocacy within digital ecosystems could inform emotionally calibrated engagement strategies.

Illegitimate tasks diminish my engagement in organizational citizenship behaviors: A reciprocity perspective model.

Illegitimate tasks diminish my engagement in organizational citizenship behaviors: A reciprocity perspective model.

A social exchange perspective on supervisors' Dark Triad and subordinates' counterproductive work behaviors: psychological contract fulfillment as a boundary condition.

A social exchange perspective on supervisors' Dark Triad and subordinates' counterproductive work behaviors: psychological contract fulfillment as a boundary condition.

E-commerce Logistics Performance and Resilience: The Influence of Inter-Organizational Trust and Organizational Flexibility

E-commerce Logistics Performance and Resilience: The Influence of Inter-Organizational Trust and Organizational Flexibility

Job Satisfaction as a Mediator in the Relationship Between Leadership, Organizational Support and Work Motivation

Gender has become an important issue in the workplace, especially related to its influence on job satisfaction and motivation. This study aims to analyze the influence of leadership, organizational support, compensation, and gender on job motivation, with job satisfaction as a mediating variable. This study was conducted on employees of the Muara Tirta Gorontalo Regional Water Company with a quantitative approach and explanatory design. Data were obtained from 145 respondents who were purposively selected from 609 employees, using a closed questionnaire based on a five-point Likert scale. The analysis was carried out using the path analysis method with the help of Lisrel 8.7 software. The results of the study showed that leadership, organizational support, compensation, and gender had a significant effect on job satisfaction, which then partially mediated the effect on work motivation. Fair gender treatment has been shown to reduce inequality and increase motivation. Compensation and leadership are dominant factors in shaping job satisfaction and motivation. These findings support the Social Exchange Theory which emphasizes the importance of reciprocal relationships between organizations and employees. Practically, the results of this study encourage public sector organizations to implement justice-based policies, effective leadership, and transparent compensation systems to increase work motivation.

A Meta‐Analysis of Antecedents and Outcomes of Flexible Working Arrangements

ABSTRACTFlexible working arrangements (FWAs) are increasingly available and used across diverse settings, particularly following the COVID‐19 pandemic. Yet, knowledge of the antecedents and outcomes of FWAs is incomplete and inconclusive. It remains unclear what factors facilitate the perceived availability and use of FWAs, and under what conditions FWAs are most beneficial, including (1) whether flexibility in work schedule (flextime), work location (flexplace) or both (flextime + place) is most beneficial, and (2) whether employees must use FWAs to reap their benefits. To address these gaps, we conduct a comprehensive meta‐analysis to examine theoretically derived antecedents and outcomes of FWAs. We also examine whether different types of FWAs—flextime versus flexplace versus flextime + place, and FWA availability versus FWA use—moderate the relationships between FWAs and outcomes. Meta‐analytic results based on 113 studies with 88 618 participants identify a host of important antecedences of FWAs, such as managerial status, self‐efficacy, and task interdependency. Consistent with social exchange theory, Conservation of Resources theory and boundary theory, FWAs were significantly associated with beneficial outcomes, such as greater job satisfaction, organisational commitment, job autonomy, life satisfaction, better work‐family interface and family satisfaction. Significant moderation indicate that more beneficial employee outcomes were associated with (1) having both flextime and flexplace compared to flextime or flexplace alone, (2) flextime compared to flexplace and (3) the availability compared to use of FWAs. These results provide a comprehensive, systematic understanding of the personal, work‐related, and familial antecedents and outcomes associated with different types of FWAs.

Examining the Formation of Resident Support for Tourism: An Integration of Social Exchange Theory and Tolerance Zone Theory

Resident support toward tourism is often analyzed through the lens of the “benefits vs. costs” paradigm within social exchange theory. However, empirical observations have shown instances where residents remain supportive despite costs outweighing benefits, challenging the conventional social exchange logic. To address this paradox, this study introduces the Tolerance Zone Theory. A conceptual framework has been constructed wherein the influence of negative tourism factors is contingent upon residents’ level of tolerance. This tolerance is, in turn, molded by the presence of positive outcomes derived from tourism. This framework was tested using survey data gathered from 514 residents in ethnic villages in Guizhou Province, China. The results validate the moderating effect of tolerance, demonstrating that high tolerance can mitigate the impact of negative tourism outcomes on resident support. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Support for Tourism Development After The COVID-19 Pandemic: The Mediating Role of Quality of Life

The role of local communities is a crucial factor in tourism development, particularly post-COVID-19 pandemic. Within the framework of social exchange theory (SET), this study examines how perceived advantages (both personal and community) affect support for tourism development, with quality of life acting as a mediating factor. A total of 196 empirical data were successfully gathered through the distribution of questionnaires, which were subsequently analyzed using PLS-SEM techniques. The results indicate that perceived benefits (personal and community) positively affect quality of life. The study also revealed that the quality of life has a beneficial impact on the level of support for tourism development. The correlation between perceived advantages (both personal and community) and support for tourism growth is ultimately mediated by quality of life. This research significantly contributes to both practitioners and policymakers in developing sustainable tourism.

The Impact of Work Connectivity Behavior on Employee Time Theft: The Role of Revenge Motive and Leader–Member Exchange

Organizations have long been actively seeking ways to reduce unethical behavior among employees. However, employee time theft is widespread and costly across various industries, and related research remains relatively limited. Therefore, this study employed social exchange theory to empirically investigate how and when work connectivity behavior promotes employee time theft. Drawing on a sample of 330 employees, our findings indicate that work connectivity behavior positively impacts employee time theft by triggering revenge motives among employees. Furthermore, it was discovered that leader–member exchange weakens both the direct effect of work connectivity behavior on revenge motive and the indirect effect of work connectivity behavior on employee time theft via revenge motive. This research developed and elucidated a moderated mediation model, providing valuable insights for both theory and practice.

The Performance Effects of Independent Directors: A Large‐Scale Study of Danish New Ventures

ABSTRACTResearch Question/IssueThis study investigates the effects of independent outside directors on the performance of new venture firms. We also study several factors moderating the relationship between the percentage of independent directors on boards and the new ventures' performance.Research Findings/InsightsUsing a large‐scale sample of 5183 Danish new ventures active in 2015–2020, we find support for our hypothesis that the percentage of independent directors has an inverted U‐shaped effect on new venture performance. The results also show that firm‐level factors, that is, founder equity and venture age, cushion and amplify this nonlinear effect.Theoretical/Academic ImplicationsDrawing on resource dependence theory as an exchange theory, we propose that increasing the proportion of independent directors yields linearly increasing gains (i.e., resource‐provisioning benefits) but also induces costs of sacrificing managerial control, which accelerate nonlinearly. Our findings show that a smaller proportion of independent directors benefits new ventures, but as their proportion grows, the performance gains become smaller, eventually leading to negative marginal effects.Practitioner/Policy ImplicationsPractitioners will find our findings of interest because, contrary to the recommendations of policymakers and many prior studies, they show that having a high proportion of independent directors on the boards of new ventures does not always improve new venture performance. Founders of new ventures should be aware of the trade‐off between the benefits of obtaining additional resources and the costs of sacrificing managerial control.

Analyzing the Contents of a Large, Public Online Peer Support Forum for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Thematic Analysis.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a debilitating chronic anxiety disorder with low rates of remission. r/OCD is a peer support forum hosted by the Reddit website with over 180,000 users and 100-200 new posts daily. While peer support has been associated with improved treatment adherence and outcomes, online forums can also be an outlet for performing and accommodating compulsions (eg, seeking and receiving reassurance), which can ultimately exacerbate OCD. This study aims to inductively assess what types of content are posted on r/OCD, an online peer support forum for individuals with OCD, to better understand the prevalent topics, dynamics, and norms of such online communities. To describe the explicit content of the forum, 132 new posts with a total of 739 comments added to the subreddit within a 24-hour period from August 4, 2023, to August 5, 2023, were manually downloaded and coded using inductive thematic analysis. Though posts beyond the first 24 hours were downloaded, saturation of ideas was observed after the first 110 posts, and thus, no posts after the first 24 hours were included in the analysis. Through inductive thematic analysis, codes were organized into overarching themes. Four main themes emerged during analysis: (1) validating OCD symptoms (n=69 total posts and comments), (2) connecting with peers with similar OCD themes (n=512), (3) coping with symptoms (n=280), and (4) sharing treatment experiences and advice (n=118). Many posts involved users describing their symptoms, questioning if a particular symptom was OCD, and asking other users if they had similar experiences. Users frequently categorized their OCD into subtypes using abbreviations (eg, "ROCD" [relationship OCD]) to seek others with similar experiences. A minority of posts solicited and provided advice on therapy and medication. Users were supportive and encouraging of each other's recovery journeys. Online peer support forum users demonstrated substantial knowledge of OCD and treatments; these forums enable users to receive social support and exchange helpful information and peer experiences related to seeking medical treatment. However, many users use the platform to connect with others experiencing similar subtypes of OCD or to seek confirmation that their symptoms are OCD, which is promoted by community norms and may suggest they are reassurance-seeking. Close moderation by health care professionals and restricting detailed sharing of OCD symptoms to prevent reassurance-seeking may be important for ensuring a net positive impact of online peer support forums for OCD. In addition, clinicians should consider if their patients may be reassurance-seeking on this and similar OCD forums, given their popularity. Future studies should conduct interviews with users and investigate patterns of user ability to further understand the potential harms and benefits of online peer support forums.

Sustainable Human Resource Management and Career Quality in Public Utilities: Evidence from Jordan’s Electricity Sector

This study investigates the impact of human resource management (HRM) practices—specifically planning, recruitment, training, and motivation—on dimensions of career quality (job security, promotion equity, and participatory decision-making) among employees of the Jordan Electricity Distribution Company (JEDCO). Utilizing a quantitative cross-sectional survey design, data were collected from 173 employees, allowing for an in-depth exploration of their perceptions and experiences regarding HRM practices. The findings reveal that both training and motivation significantly enhance career quality, with employees who receive advanced training reporting a stronger sense of job security and an increased likelihood to participate in decision-making processes. In contrast, the effects of recruitment and planning practices were found to be marginal due to perceived biases and strategies that fail to adequately address the long-term needs of the workforce. Despite moderate overall career quality scores, key areas for improvement were identified, particularly in job security and employee involvement. This study offers actionable recommendations for JEDCO, such as implementing AI-driven recruitment tools to mitigate nepotism and developing gamified training modules to enhance skill development. Furthermore, it underscores the importance of integrating HRM reforms into Jordan’s National Energy Strategy, thereby supporting Sustainable Development Goal 8. This research represents the first empirical examination linking HRM practices to career quality in Jordan’s energy sector, offering a framework applicable to public utilities in emerging economies (e.g., Lebanon’s EDL). This research extends Social Exchange Theory into non-Western hierarchical contexts, demonstrating how bureaucratic inertia and tribal affiliations weaken reciprocity dynamics—a novel boundary condition contrasting Western-centric SET models.

A Grounded Theory of Peer Mechanism in a Self-help Group

The poor and unorganized women artisans lack the physical collateral, and banks are wary to lend to them due to informational asymmetry regarding their creditworthiness. Social capital in a joint liability group enables the members to borrow from the banks. Due to the joint liability and dynamic incentive of higher credit limits, the members peer monitors each other to ensure access to finance. The research study aims to discuss the role of peer mechanisms in ensuring the success of lending to the poor and marginalized through self-help groups (SHGs) or joint liability groups. Since there is no study that discusses the impact of peer mechanisms on lending through SHGs, this study, for the first time, provides a conceptual framework for peer mechanism and their role in ensuring the sustainability of joint liability groups. This study uses the social constructivist paradigm and the grounded theory method to explain how the peer mechanism that comprises peer selection, peer monitoring and peer enforcement helps to improve the repayment rates under the SHGs linkage program. The data for the study are collected using 25 semi-structured interviews with the members of the SHGs and the heads of the self-help-promoting institutions. The analysis of data highlights that in a group social exchange, social control, social cohesion, sustainability, and social welfare, which emerged as categories after the open coding, are the main sources of peer mechanism. Further focused coding highlighted that mainly network relations, trust, and norms enable sustainability in the SHGs.

Pengaruh Work Life Balance dan Job Burnout Terhadap Employee Performance Dimoderasi oleh Employee Engagement pada Analis Laboratorium Wanita di Jabodetabek

This study aims to analyze the influence ofwork-life balance And job burnout to employee performancemoderated byemployee engagementon female laboratory analysts in the Jabodetabek area. This study was based onsocial exchange theory, which explains that the interaction between employees and the organization is reciprocal, wherework life balanceand leveljob burnoutcan affectemployee performance. Data were collected through a survey using a questionnaire.onlinedistributed to 291 respondents. The analysis method used isStructural Equation Modeling(SEM) with LISREL software. The results of the study showed thatjob burnouthave a negative influence onemployee performance, whereas organizational supportnegatively affectjob burnout. However, work-life balancedoes not have a significant effect onjob burnoutand alsoemployee performance. Besides that, employee engagementproven to strengthen the negative relationship betweenjob burnout And employee performance. This finding indicates thatwork life balancedoes not always contribute to improvementemployee performance. On the other hand, the leveljob burnouthigh can decreaseemployee performance, especially in employees with high involvement in their work. Organizational support has been shown to be an important factor in reducingjob burnoutand maintain employee motivation and productivity. The implications of this study can be used by companies in developing human resource management strategies to improveemployee performancethrough improvementemployee engagementand better organizational support.

Unraveling the relationship between algorithmic management, leader’s social distance, and employee engagement: an exchange perspective

Understanding the relationship between algorithmic management (AM) and employee engagement is crucial as AM increasingly reshapes traditional workplaces beyond the gig economy. Unlike gig settings characterized by transactional, short-term exchanges, traditional employment relationships rely heavily on social reciprocity and trust. Drawing on social exchange theory (SET), this research contributes by explaining why and how AM fundamentally restructure these traditional social dynamics. Two studies were conducted: Study 1 (N = 304) employed a cross-sectional field design, revealing that AM weakens social exchange while reinforcing economic exchange, thereby reducing employee engagement. Study 2 (N = 410) experimentally replicated these findings, established causality, and demonstrated that leader social distance critically moderates these effects. Specifically, in low-AM environments, a proximal leader reinforces social exchange, whereas in high-AM environments, leader proximity attenuates economic exchange. These findings highlight AM’s contingent impacts on engagement, demonstrating that AM actively reduces interpersonal reciprocity and trust. Thus, rather than functioning merely as a neutral technological tool, AM emerges as a central force redefining traditional employer-employee relationships. Theoretical and practical implications for human resource management are discussed.

Reciprocity in information exchange: how social exchange enriches collaborative research partnerships

Introduction. This paper explores the information behaviour of researchers engaging with industry, community and government stakeholders. It examines the interplay between information sharing, seeking, encountering and use, and the role of reciprocity in social exchange. Research design. This qualitative study involved semi-structured interviews with 27 academics in Australia using a constructivist grounded theory methodology, and Molm’s reciprocity theory of social exchange as a framework for analysis Theoretical framework. Savolainen’s characterisation of information exchange as the intersection of seeking and sharing (2019) and Molm’s (2010) reciprocity theory of social exchange. Findings. The findings indicate that researchers’ information behaviour in relationships with stakeholders involved information reciprocity in the interaction of information seeking, sharing, encountering and use. Researchers engaged in interactive and interwoven processes of seeking, sharing, encountering and using information that involved mutual benefits for each party. Conclusions. The paper presents a Model of Information Reciprocity for Social Exchange that identifies the information behaviours and modes of reciprocity that underpin researcher-stakeholder relationships. Information sharing, seeking, encountering and use are the mechanisms enabling reciprocity and occur interactively and iteratively.

Effect of Green Reward Management Practices on Employee Retention in the Athi River EPZs, Kenya

Employee retention is crucial for organisational success, particularly in Kenya’s Export Processing Zones (EPZs), where turnover rates are higher than the acceptable 10% or below. High turnover rates in the EPZs are often associated with poor working conditions that could be detrimental to employee well-being. Implementation of green reward practices could improve these working conditions by creating a healthy and sustainable work environment. This study examined the effect of green reward management practices on employee retention in the Athi River EPZ. The study was anchored on Social Exchange Theory and adopted a descriptive research design. The study had a target population of 56 EPZs with 20,000 employees as the unit of observation. Cochran’s formula was used to obtain a sample size of 377 respondents. Stratified random sampling was used to distribute the sample across departments in the EPZs. Data was collected using a structured five-point Likert scale questionnaire. A pilot study involving 30 participants was conducted to measure the reliability of the research instrument. Descriptive statistics in means, percentages, and standard deviation were employed, while correlation and regression analysis were applied for inferential statistics. The study found that green reward management practices have a positive and statistically significant effect on employee retention (β = 0.435, p < 0.001). The study recommends integrating green reward management practices to improve employee retention in workplaces

Dimensions of Inspirational Leadership: An Exploratory Factor Analysis in the School Settings

School leadership addresses the challenges and threats of the school regarding the change process by inspiring and motivating teachers. This function of leadership is represented by inspirational leadership, which is composed of five dimensions according to Bass and Bass, 2008. Connecting to it, the researcher aims to determine the factors of inspirational leadership among teachers in a school setting. For this purpose, this study employed a cross-sectional survey and collected data via a structured questionnaire from 502 sample teachers. The sample teachers were identified by employing a multi-stage cluster sampling. Then, the collected data were analyzed through Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), and in the end, the results were reasoned with social exchange theory. Then, through EFA, this study retained five dimensions of inspirational leadership as intellectual stimulation, envisioning, managing impression, molding follower’s expectations, and Managing meaning. These five dimensions of inspirational leadership are related to the social exchange between schools and teachers. In line with this, the school leadership generates innovative ideas, visualizes the ideal outlook of the school, presents self as a role model, creates a belief system, and develops a sense of ownership among teachers by inspiring them. In return for this, teachers were inspired and perform a high job in the school.

The impact of master–servant relationships in human–robot collaboration on customer perceptions and behaviors in frontline retail encounters

PurposeThis research examines empirically the concept of master–servant relationships in human–robot collaboration (HRC). Drawing on leader–member exchange and intergroup threat theories, this paper develops and tests a novel research model that links the working relationships between human frontline staff and humanoid social robots (HSRs) to customers’ perceptions of realistic threat and trust, and, consequently, their intention to use service robots in retail stores. In addition, the paper tests the moderating role of speciesism.Design/methodology/approachThis paper consists of four online experiments studying the effects of master–servant roles in HRC in frontline retail. Data for the studies was collected from US participants and members of Prolific. Multiple moderated mediation models using SPSS v29 PROCESS 4.0 were used in the analyses to test the proposed hypotheses.FindingsThe role of master–servant relationships between human retail staff and HSRs influences customer perceptions of realistic threat and trust toward HSRs. Speciesism increases the negative mediating effects of realistic threat and reduces the positive mediating effects of trust, ultimately affecting consumers’ intention to use retail robots when they perform a master (vs. servant) role during HRC in frontline retail encounters.Originality/valueThe present research examines the likely working relationships between human frontline staff as subordinates (i.e. servants) and HSRs as their immediate supervisors (i.e. masters), as well as the spillover effects on customers’ perceptions in hybrid service encounters. The results contribute to recent research in which job titles of AI agents can influence customers’ perceptions of those agents (e.g. Jeon, 2022). In addition, this research showcases how speciesism moderates these effects.

Onboarding for success: exploring the effects of socialization tactics on newcomer well-being

Purpose This study aimed to examine how the organizational socialization process affects newcomers’ work engagement and well-being. It employed relational cohesion theory and social exchange theory to argue that relational factors, specifically perceived organizational support and on-the-job embeddedness, would act as mechanisms linking the organizational socialization process to key affective outcomes Design/methodology/approach A two-wave study in the chemical industry was conducted. Data was collected during and after the onboarding process with 72 newcomers who joined the organization between January and April of 2023 and completed the organizational onboarding program. Findings The results demonstrated that both perceived organizational support and on-the-job-embeddedness mediated the indirect relationship between socialization tactics used in the onboarding program and work engagement. Further, the findings also demonstrated that work engagement was a mediator in the relationship between perceived organizational support and on-the-job-embeddedness and newcomers’ well-being. Lastly, socialization tactics influenced newcomers’ well-being through a serial effect of perceived organizational support and work engagement and on-the-job embeddedness and work engagement. Originality/value This research highlights the critical role of carefully selected socialization tactics in organizations. By choosing the right approaches, organizations can not only meet their objectives but also gain from the active participation and commitment of their new employees. This, in turn, leads to a significant increase in overall employee well-being.