Little is known about pathogens circulating in free-living snow leopards (Panthera uncia) and their implications for both species conservation and local communities in Nepal. The close proximity between snow leopards and domestic animals increases the risk of pathogen spillover and represents a critical knowledge gap that has yet to be explored in Nepal. We conducted a pilot noninvasive health assessment of snow leopards in Nepal by screening for the presence of selected pathogens in snow leopards and livestock inhabiting the same area and having local community members complete a knowledge, attitude, and practice questionnaire focused on the health of domestic species and opinions on snow leopards. We collected two different sets of fecal samples of domestic animals and putative snow leopards in the Mustang region of Nepal in December 2024. Six scat samples were confirmed to be from snow leopards by using a species-specific PCR. We detected Leptospira spp. in a domesticated horse sample and Escherichia coli and several intestinal parasites, including Eimeria spp., in several livestock species. This study represents a step toward understanding potential pathogen spillover risks between snow leopards, domestic animals, and humans.

Abstract A hemimandible, an upper carnassial and some postcranial finds of leopard ( Panthera pardus ) from the Late Pleistocene (Eemian, MIS 5e) site of Burgtonna (Thuringia, Germany) are presented. They prove to belong to the morphotype previously known as the Mosbach/Taubach group and considerably extend the knowledge and the dentitional discrimination of corresponding forms. The new Burgtonna finds are described as the subspecies Panthera pardus burgtonnae ssp. nov. and are distinguished from the more common last glacial (Weichselian) leopard, widespread in Europe and taxonomically revised here as Panthera pardus antiqua (Cuvier, 1825). Both leopard forms of the European Late Pleistocene were not just very large sized compared to extant leopards, but were also particularly heavily built, exceeding the scale of modern forms and coming close to jaguars. This is demonstrated by a newly introduced body mass index. An introgressive influence of the last late Middle Pleistocene jaguars ( Panthera onca gombaszoegensis ) cannot be excluded without molecular genetic studies based on sequencing of whole genomes. Such DNA studies may also provide insight into possible Pleistocene hybridisation events especially with European snow leopards.

ABSTRACTPlant consumption by felids is widely reported; however, direct behavioral evidence in wild individuals remains scarce. A camera‐trap was used to document plant‐directed behaviors by wild snow leopards (Panthera uncia) toward Myricaria sp. and to compare responses of sympatric mammals. A camera was deployed at approximately 2580 m in the Shamshy co‐managed nature protected area, Kyrgyzstan, recording 60‐s videos upon motion detection across 412 monitoring days. In total, 1065 videos were obtained, including 131 mammal encounters representing nine wild species and four domestic species. Plant consumption was observed in snow leopards, domestic horses (Equus ferus caballus), Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica), and domestic cattle (Bos taurus); however, Myricaria sp. ingestion occurred only in snow leopards and horses. A single adult male snow leopard was recorded on 15 occasions across three non‐consecutive days. Across 15 videos, feeding on Myricaria sp. occurred during 14, typically following sniffing (11/15) and then, often, head‐rubbing (7/15). The snow leopard progressively consumed branches from distal tips toward the proximal base. These events occurred in winter and early spring when Myricaria sp. bore mostly stubbles and stems. Horses appeared on six non‐consecutive days (50 videos) and fed on Myricaria sp. only during the leafy period recorded on 1 day (14 videos) on 25th September 2022; seven of 18 passing horses fed, defoliating shrubs. Domestic dogs and ibexes sniffed Myricaria sp. in three and four videos, respectively, but did not consume it. These observations provide the first camera‐trap evidence of Myricaria sp. consumption by wild snow leopards and reveal associated sniffing followed by feeding and then head‐rubbing, suggestive of olfactory assessment and also potential marking. Species‐specific use of Myricaria sp. indicates roles beyond forage. The findings motivate targeted chemical and physiological studies to clarify functional drivers (e.g., gastrointestinal, self‐medication, oral stimulation, or scent‐marking) of plant‐directed behaviors in felids.

Human disturbances, such as habitat destruction and overharvesting, are greatly harming ecosystems and causing significant declines in biodiversity. Although protected areas play a crucial role in conserving terrestrial mammals, nearly non-protected areas (N-PAs) have similar functions, harbor high biodiversity and ecosystem integrity, and deserve to be protected. To identify the conservation value of mammalian species in critical ecosystems within N-PAs, we conducted a camera-trap survey in Luolong County, Tibet, from November 2019 to June 2023, monitoring 159 sites and documenting 25 mammalian species across 28 similar or dissimilar habitats. We found this area was an integrity ecosystem with higher species richness and diversity in scrub and evergreen forests with notable occurrence of herbivores comprising musk deer, chinese serow, woolly hares and carnivores such as the common leopard, snow leopards, red foxes and stone marten. Mammalian species occurrence increased away from human activities. Different habitats and seasons influenced diversity and species interactions. Key findings include species preferences for specific habitats, such as blue sheep on southern slopes during snow, musk deer in mixed forests, and red foxes avoiding alpine meadows. Habitat type, elevation, and human disturbance significantly impacted species distribution and behavior. The study also found that snow leopard activity time negatively correlates with woolly hare, while common leopards are influenced positively by hares and negatively by brown bears. Red foxes are slightly more active near the chinese serow occurrence areas. Other predators and prey, such as eurasian lynx, gray wolves, musk deer and stone martens show specific seasonal and interspecific interactions, with some relationships explaining small portions of variation. Overall, species temporal detection events are interconnected through complex ecological interactions. These findings improve our understanding of habitat hosting for rare species and the balance of endangered prey and predator communities in N-PAs in Tibet, emphasizing their significance for conservation efforts.

The Sanjiangyuan Region is among China's most critical ecological function zones and serves as an important habitat for rare wildlife species such as brown bears and snow leopards. Driven by factors including climate change and intensified human activities, human-wildlife conflicts have become increasingly frequent on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, threatening the living space of both herders and wildlife. This study centers on the Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Qinghai Province, integrating multi-source remote sensing data with field survey data, and employs the Maximum Entropy Model (MaxEnt) MaxEnt model and the BIOMOD2 framework to simulate high-risk areas for brown bear incidents. Results indicate that the BIOMOD2 ensemble model (EMca) achieved the highest predictive accuracy, with the Random Forest (RF) model demonstrating strong robustness among individual models. Digital Elevation Model (DEM), Soil Surface Moisture (SSM), Fractional Vegetation Cover (FVC), and Human Footprint (HFP) were identified as the primary factors influencing the spatial distribution of brown bear incidents. High-risk areas exhibited significant clustering, mainly concentrated in the southern and southeastern regions of Qumalai, Nangchen, and Chindu; the eastern part of Zadoi County; and the central and southern parts of Yushu City, particularly within the elevation range of 4304-4544 m, where human activity intensity is relatively low. The core high-risk zone is located along the Tongtian River in southern Qumalai County, demonstrating strong spatial connectivity. By investigating the spatial distribution patterns and driving mechanisms of brown bear incidents in Yushu Prefecture, this study offers some references for government agencies to formulate strategies that promote harmonious coexistence between humans and nature.

This study examined the integration of genomic tools with conservation biology to address genetic erosion in endangered mammals of Pakistan. The research focused on key species including the snow leopard, Indus river dolphin, and markhor, which faced increasing threats from habitat fragmentation, inbreeding, and environmental change. A quantitative research design was applied, and a sample size of 180 genetic specimens was analyzed using advanced genomic techniques such as DNA sequencing and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis. The results indicated a moderate level of genetic diversity (mean = 3.21) alongside high inbreeding levels (mean = 4.05) and severe habitat fragmentation (mean = 4.18). Structural model findings showed that habitat fragmentation negatively affected genetic diversity (β = -0.42, p = 0.000), while inbreeding also exerted a significant negative effect (β = -0.39, p = 0.000). In contrast, genomic monitoring demonstrated a positive impact on genetic diversity (β = 0.36, p = 0.000), and conservation policy support also contributed positively (β = 0.31, p = 0.000). The study proposed an integrated framework combining genomic monitoring, habitat restoration, and policy interventions to enhance conservation effectiveness. The findings highlighted the importance of incorporating genomic data into conservation strategies to improve species resilience and reduce extinction risks. This research provided practical implications for policymakers, conservationists, and researchers aiming to preserve biodiversity and manage genetic erosion in endangered mammalian populations.

ABSTRACT Managing human-wildlife interactions is essential for conservation in Sanjiangyuan National Park. This study develops a scenario-based framework to explain visitors’emotional and behavioural responses. A mixed-methods design combines interviews with scenario-based visual surveys. Results show that landscape and animal behaviour jointly shape emotions: grasslands and calm animals elicit positive emotions, while vigilance or aggression induces negative emotions; Tibetan wild asses are perceived more positively than snow leopards. Behavioural intentions vary by context, with grasslands encouraging photography and roads prompting avoidance. Emotional responses further influence coping behaviours, with negative emotions associated with higher risky intentions.This study advances understanding of wildlife tourism by linking cognitive appraisal processes with behavioural outcomes. It provides practical implications for visitor management and risk mitigation in protected areas.

Mammalian carnivores play an important role in maintaining the integrity of an ecosystem; therefore, their conservation as an umbrella species ensures the conservation of other species as well as the entire ecosystem. The northern area of Pakistan has a rich diversity of globally and regionally significant carnivore species, many of which are threatened mainly due to conflict with humans. In the current study, we used multiple survey techniques: camera trapping, sign surveys, and questionnaire surveys in the Basha–Braldu Valleys of the Central Karakoram National Park (CKNP) during the period 20 May–31 July 2017. The objectives were to document mammalian carnivore diversity and relative abundance and to assess community perceptions of carnivores and human–carnivore conflicts associated with economic losses from livestock depredation. Camera trapping was only carried out in the Basha valley, where 30 motion-triggered cameras were deployed for two months, maintaining a minimum spatial distance of 1 km between the nearest cameras. Sign surveys were carried out in both valleys by dividing the area into 5 km × 5 km grids. Signs of carnivores were searched in a 50 m radius of the sampling point, and a minimum distance of 100 m was maintained between the two nearest sampling points. The questionnaire survey was conducted in communities residing in both valleys. Overall, 140 randomly selected locals from 23 villages were interviewed about the human–carnivore interaction in the area. The questionnaire covered the respondents’ demographics, carnivore sightings and status, economic loss due to livestock depredation, and local perceptions towards carnivores. The study confirmed the presence of seven carnivore species, including the snow leopard (Panthera uncia), grey wolf (Canis lupus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), brown bear (Ursus arctos), Himalayan lynx (Lynx lynx), stone marten (Martes foina), and weasel (Mustela altaica). Of the total livestock losses reported, carnivores accounted for 30% (394 animals), while 70% (1347 animals) were attributed to disease, resulting in an overall economic loss of USD 138,778 (USD 991 per household). Livestock depredation varied with season, prey type, location, livestock guarding practices, and predator species. Due to high levels of livestock depredation, local communities perceived the grey wolf as the most dangerous carnivore, with many respondents favoring its reduction or elimination. Our findings indicate that the Basha–Braldu Valleys support a rich diversity of globally important carnivore species; however, human–carnivore conflict driven by livestock depredation remains a major conservation challenge. Effective conflict-mitigation interventions are essential to promote sustainable conservation practices and long-term coexistence within these mountain ecosystems. Further studies are recommended to improve the understanding of carnivore population status, distribution, and dietary ecology.

All three species of woolly flying squirrels, genus Eupetaurus , are among the world’s rarest and least studied mammals. Here, we report the first confirmed record of the Tibetan Woolly Flying Squirrel, Eupetaurus tibetensis Jackson et al., 2021, from Kangchenjunga Conservation Area in northeastern Nepal. Captured by camera traps during a Snow Leopard survey, this record fills a significant biogeographic gap in the known distribution of the genus Eupetaurus , suggesting a continuous Himalayan distribution. This finding underscores the need for systematic research to understand the species’ distributional limits and conservation status.

Integrating prey resource into the analysis of snow leopards corridor and conflict risk zone for sustainable conservation

Large carnivores increasingly coexist in human-modified mountain landscapes, yet empirical evidence on how multiple apex predators partition space, time, and resources to reduce competition remains limited, particularly in the Central Himalaya, Nepal. Understanding these mechanisms is critical for predicting interspecific interactions and informing conservation practices in resource-limited alpine ecosystems. This study explored the ecological interactions, competitive dynamics, and coexistence strategies of sympatric snow leopards (Panthera uncia), leopards (Panthera pardus), and Himalayan wolves (Canis lupus chanco) in the Lapchi Valley, Central Himalaya, Nepal. We examined spatial distribution, temporal activity patterns, and dietary overlap among these apex predators using a combination of camera trapping, scat-based DNA analysis, and micro-histological diet assessment. The results showed a complete (100%) spatial overlap between the snow leopards and wolves’ ranges. All three predators exhibited predominantly nocturnal activity with strong temporal overlap (0.78). Dietary analyses showed a clear trophic segregation: snow leopards relied mainly on wild ungulates, leopards consumed synanthropic prey, while wolves consumed a mixed diet combining wild and domestic prey. Pianka’s index indicated high dietary overlap between snow leopards and wolves (0.77), but remarkably low overlap of these predators with leopards. The multidimensional niche partitioning appears to reduce direct competition among predators. These findings highlight the role of behavioral flexibility, spatial segregation, and prey selection in promoting the coexistence of predators. Conservation strategies must prioritize sustaining wild prey populations, mitigating livestock depredation, and addressing climate-driven habitat shifts that may intensify interspecific competition.

Snow leopards (Panthera uncia) are regarded as the most charismatic apex predator in alpine Asia, yet their populations are under serious threat from human activities and habitat fragmentation. Ensuring the effectiveness of current protected areas is critical for their conservation, which necessitates a comprehensive understanding of their habitat selection patterns at different spatial scales. We aimed to use an optimized multi-scale habitat selection model to determine habitat suitability and connectivity, and identify core habitats and corridors with the aim of providing critical conservation recommendations. First, we integrated snow leopard occurrence data from camera traps deployed in the Qilian Mountains (China) from 2017 to 2023 with environmental variables to construct univariate models for scale optimization. Then, we screened the variables for the optimal scale, and modeled snow leopard habitat suitability using a multi-scale multivariate model. Finally, we identified core patches and potential corridors through a connectivity analysis. Multi-scale analyses demonstrated that snow leopards prefer to select unused land with high terrain ruggedness and precipitation. Within the suitable habitat range, we identified 51 core patches and 86 potential corridors. Optimized models highlighted critical conservation information: core habitats and key connectivity corridors had over one-third of their territory outside the protected areas. Subei County is the primary concentration area of most important patches, though connectivity between the patches remains poor. Tianjun County has the most corridors, yet they are almost entirely outside the protected areas. Our analysis indicates that conservation or management planning should prioritize previously neglected core habitats and essential corridors. Subei, Tianjun and Gangcha counties will become priority areas for future conservation.

Abstract Aircraft power grids often face challenges such as high harmonics and reactive currents caused by nonlinear onboard applications. To address these issues and ensure a more reliable and high-quality power supply, we propose a novel system called E-PATCH (Electric aircraft Power distribution system with Advanced Temporal CNN for Harmonic Cancellation), implemented through a Shunt Active Power Filter (SAPF). The proposed method employs a Temporal Convolutional Neural Network (TCNN) to forecast future current and voltage waveforms based on synchronized reference frame inputs to minimize switching losses. Moreover, a Fractional Order PID (FOPID) controller is utilized and the parameters of the controller are optimally adjusted by the Snow Leopard Optimization algorithm to provide a better performance of the system. The Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) is managed using Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) and injects compensating currents to eliminate harmonics, voltage dips, and flicker. Moreover, the balancing of voltages is made easy with the use of one DC link in proposed SAPF. The proposed method performance is evaluated under different loading conditions, with generator frequencies ranging from 400 to 800 Hz, and tested using nonlinear loads with balanced grid voltages in MATLAB/SIMULINK. The proposed method reduces current THD from 24.8 to 3.8% and voltage THD from 26.5 to 4.9%, achieving compliance with IEEE-519 standards. The THD of the proposed controller 39.14%, 34.22%, and 12.2% lower compared to existing PI, PID, FOPID, and Fuzzy FOPID controllers, respectively.

Snow leopards (Panthera uncia) are a flagship species for global biodiversity conservation, and their effective protection relies on accurate habitat assessment. This study focused on the Chengdu section of the Giant Panda National Park (Pengzhou, Dujiangyan, Chongzhou, Dayi), integrating terrain, climate, vegetation and human disturbance factors. Using the MaxEnt model (AUC = 0.943) and field infrared camera data, we evaluated snow leopard habitat quality. Results showed that: (1) 95.7% of snow leopard records were concentrated in Dayi County; (2) Key drivers included annual mean temperature (peak at -2 °C), annual mean ground temperature (peak at -1 °C) and human population density (>5 km), while NDVI (≈2000) had a significant negative effect; (3) Suitable habitat was 320.98 km2 (22.20%), decreasing from Qionglai Mountain to Minshan. This study fills regional survey gaps and provides a scientific basis for snow leopard conservation.

This contribution presents the current distribution of snow leopards across Kazakhstan’s mountain systems and summarises the proposed national IUCN Red List range map. It reviews available information on population status, drawing on recent surveys and monitoring efforts. The chapter outlines key threats, including illegal hunting, prey decline and livestock-related conflict. It concludes with an overview of current conservation efforts in Kazakhstan.

This contribution presents the current distribution of snow leopards across Tajikistan and summarises the proposed national IUCN Red List range map. It reviews available survey data and published studies that inform current understanding of population status, including recent revisions to national estimates. The chapter outlines key threats in Tajikistan, including livestock depredation and retaliatory killing, illegal trade, prey dynamics, and climate change. It concludes with an overview of ongoing research and conservation efforts in the country.

This contribution presents the current distribution of snow leopards across Mongolia and summarises the proposed national IUCN Red List range map. It reviews findings from the nationwide occupancy and density assessment to describe current understanding of population status. The chapter outlines key threats, including habitat fragmentation, livestock-related conflict, prey decline, infrastructure expansion, and climate pressures. It concludes with an overview of current conservation efforts in Mongolia.

This contribution describes the distribution of snow leopards across Pakistan and presents the proposed national IUCN Red List range map. It summarises recent camera trapping, genetic studies, and national assessment efforts that inform current understanding of population status. The chapter outlines key threats in Pakistan, including livestock depredation and retaliatory killing, illegal hunting and trade, prey decline, habitat degradation, and infrastructure development associated with roads and energy projects. It concludes with an overview of current conservation and monitoring efforts in the country.

This contribution presents the current distribution of snow leopards across India’s high Himalayan and trans-Himalayan landscapes and summarises the proposed national IUCN Red List range map. It synthesises results from the nationwide population assessment and other published studies to describe current understanding of population status. The chapter outlines key threats, including livestock-related conflict, prey decline, infrastructure expansion, and climate change. It concludes with an overview of ongoing conservation efforts in India.

This contribution presents the current distribution of snow leopards in the Altai–Sayan region of the Russian Federation and summarises the proposed national IUCN Red List range map. It reviews recent regional surveys and camera-trap monitoring that inform current understanding of population status. The chapter outlines key threats, including snare-based poaching, retaliatory killing linked to livestock depredation, prey decline, and localized infrastructure pressures. It concludes with summarising ongoing conservation and monitoring efforts in Russia.