Snake Head Research Articles

The Profile of Pempek as a Determining Factor of Quality, Originality and Ethnicity

Pempek is a traditional ethnic food originated from Palembang, South Sumatra, Indonesia. Currently, there is not exist any profiles which could be used as a determining factor for quality, originality, and ethnicity of pempek. The objective of this research was to obtain the chemical profile of pempek as a determining factor of quality, originality and ethnicity. The samples were collected from the ten famous branded vendors in Palembang. The fish used in making pempek of the samples are snake head fish, Spanish mackerel, and the mix of snake head and Spanish mackerel. The type of pempek used in this experiment was steamed cook pempek lenjer (cylindrical) type. The analysis was performed at a KAN accredited laboratory. It was found that the energy content of pempek used in this experiment was in the range of 125 to 160 kkal/100 g sample and all the pempek used had a 0% of fat. All pempek used had 17 types of amino acid, and all of them had an essential amino acid. The significant finding was that the concentration of glutamic acid was 200% of the concentration of common concentration which indicated that all the vendors used artificial mono-sodium glutamate to improve the taste of pempek. It was concluded that the chemical profile found on this research could be used as database for creating a standard of identity of pempek.

Low-frequency electroencephalogram oscillations govern left-eye lateralization during anti-predatory responses in the music frog.

Visual lateralization is widespread for prey and anti-predation in numerous taxa. However, it is still unknown how the brain governs this asymmetry. In this study, we conducted behavioral and electrophysiological experiments to evaluate anti-predatory behaviors and dynamic brain activities in Emei music frogs (Nidirana daunchina), to explore the potential eye bias for anti-predation and the underlying neural mechanisms. To do this, predator stimuli (a model snake head and a leaf as a control) were moved around the subjects in clockwise and anti-clockwise directions at steady velocity. We counted the number of anti-predatory responses and measured electroencephalogram (EEG) power spectra for each band and brain area (telencephalon, diencephalon and mesencephalon). Our results showed that (1) no significant eye preferences could be found for the control (leaf); however, the laterality index was significantly lower than zero when the predator stimulus was moved anti-clockwise, suggesting that left-eye advantage exists in this species for anti-predation; (2) compared with no stimulus in the visual field, the power spectra of delta and alpha bands were significantly greater when the predator stimulus was moved into the left visual field anti-clockwise; and, (3) generally, the power spectra of each band in the right-hemisphere for the left visual field were higher than those in the left counterpart. These results support that the left eye mediates the monitoring of a predator in music frogs and lower-frequency EEG oscillations govern this visual lateralization.

Kinematics motility of frozen-thawed X and Y sperm of Sumba Ongole bull

The aim of this study was to investigate the kinematics motility of frozen-thawed Sumba sexed sperm of Ongole bull using snake head fish albumin (SFA) column method. The SFA was made by different concentration ratio of top and bottom fraction namely 2 and 4%; 3 and 5%; 4 and 6% respectively, and BSA 5 and 10% as control. Semen pellet was diluted with Optixcell CSS extender, then sexed sperms were filled in mini straw (0.25 mL) followed with equilibration at 4°C for 2-4 hours. Prefreezing was performed for 15 minutes then freeze in liquid nitrogen. Kinematics motility was evaluated using Computer Assisted Semen Analyzer (CASA: SpermvisionTM 3.7.8) in parameter of total motility, progressive motility, distance average path (DAP), distance curvelinear (DCL), distance straight line (DSL), velocity average path (VAP), velocity curvelinear (VCL) and velocity straight line (VSL). The results of showed that sperms X (top fraction) of SFA treatment after frozen have better kinematics motility parameter compared to Y sperms, in total motility 42.13-64.09%, progressive motility 38.7-62.01%, VCL 55.89-61.85 µm/s, VAP 102.53-110.14 µm/s, and VSL 42.19-45.33 µm/s. In conclusion sperms resulted using SFA treatment (X sperm) have higher kinematic reflecting higher fertility capacity compared to control group.

TREASURE OF MARTYNIVKA TYPE FROM THE VILLAGE OF PRAVI SOLONTSI IN KHERSON REGION

Article presents jewelry findings from Pravi Solontsi in the Lower Dnieper. The assemblage belongs to the circle of Dnieper early medieval hoards of first chronological group by O. A. Shcheglova or Martynivka type.
 The complex comprises 20 whole and fragmented metal items and 1 glass bead. All jewelry is represented by elements of women’s attire: details of collar (chain with link of «snake head», tubular beads Volodarets-Urbanovich / type 1, trapezoidal pendants ornamented with two / three punches circles in mid and blue bead) and bracelets (Rodinkova / type 5, subtype 3 and 2, Rodinkova / type 2, subtype of ornamented).
 The items existed in the Middle Dnieper region and the Dnieper left bank starting from the end of the 6th / turn of the 6th—7th cc. to the middle / third quarter of the 7th c.
 We have three explanations for the reasons for the appearance of the Slavic complex of Martynivka type in the Lower Dnieper. The first is connected with the relations between Slavs and nomads. The owner of the Pravi Solontsi complex could be in depending or in marital relations with a representative of the nomadic tribal union. Other variants are a trade or migration from the Middle Dnieper to the Crimea. Their confirmation is the jewelry of the Dnieper origin in the Crimea and the Pre-Caucasus. In addition, a series of things of Crimean origin is known in the Middle Dnieper and Left Bank Dnieper.
 Near the town Oleshky (next to the village of Pravi Solontsi), was find а small bronze fibula without ornament — brooch of the Danube circle (Joachim Werner’s class IH). V. Ye. Rodinkova believes that this find belongs to type Pergamon-Tai-zee, subtype undecorated according to I. O. Gavritukhin and is already a local modification. Thus, the treasure from the Right Solonets is already the second Slavic finds of the early Middle Ages from this micro-region.

Pengaruh Minyak Ikan Toman (Channa micropeltes) Terhadap Fungsi Kognitif Mencit Putih (Mus musculus L.) Galur Swiss Webster Jantan

Salah satu faktor utama yang memengaruhi fungsi kognitif adalah asupan zat gizi. Asupan zat gizi yang harus diperhatikan antara lain asam lemak omega-6, asam lemak omega-3 seperti Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) dan Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) dan asam lemak tak jenuh. Omega-3 banyak dikandung pada ikan salah satunya ikan toman. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh pemberian minyak ikan toman (Channa micropeltes) terhadap fungsi kognitif mencit putih (Mus musculus L.) galur Swiss Webster jantan. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian eksperimental dengan rancangan pre-posttest with control group design. Subjek penelitian adalah 30 ekor mencit putih (Mus musculus L.) galur Swiss Webster jantan, umur 4-10 minggu, berat badan 20-35 gram yang dibagi menjadi 5 kelompok: kontrol positif (K1), kelompok kontrol negatif (K2), kelompok mencit yang diberikan dosis minyak ikan toman sebanyak 5% (K3), kelompok mencit yang diberikan dosis minyak ikan toman sebanyak 10% (K4) dan kelompok mencit yang diberikan dosis minyak ikan toman sebanyak 20% (K5) masing-masing sebanyak 6 ekor mencit. Fungsi kognitif dinilai menggunakan Uji MWM yang dilakukan sebanyak 2 kali. Pemberian minyak ikan toman selama 14 hari (p<0,05) mengurangi waktu latensi pada dosis tinggi (20%). Sementara itu, kelompok dengan dosis rendah dan sedang (5% dan 10%) tidak menunjukkan adanya pengaruh pemberian minyak ikan toman terhadap waktu latensi. Minyak ikan toman (Channa micropeltes), dosis 20% meningkatkan fungsi kognitif mencit putih (Mus Musculus L.) galur Swiss Webster jantan.

Intricate, Shareable, and Inexpensive: 3D Anatomy and the Integration of Disparate Visualization Techniques with diceCT Imaging

Diffusible iodine-based contrast-enhanced computed tomography (diceCT) is a relatively new soft-tissue X-ray imaging tool that is changing the way anatomists document, interpret, and distribute the most compelling anatomy of their study systems. As a contrast agent, iodine differentially binds to the lipids and carbohydrates that are naturally present within metazoan tissues, rendering them visible to X-ray imaging. As a result, diceCT provides the familiar tissue-level differentiation of magnetic resonance imaging—exposing an array of epithelia, fatty structures, glandular tissues, muscle fascicles, and neural features—but at the spectacular resolution and lower costs of nano- and micro-scale CT. Over the last decade, a small, but rapidly growing, community of anatomists has showcased the broad potential for applying diceCT to developmental, functional, and evolutionary questions as well as highlighting its use for building pedagogical tools. Recent advances, including aligning other anatomical visualization modalities such as standard histology, immunohistochemistry, and positron emission tomography into 3D diceCT models, provides opportunities to synthesize principles of gross-, tissue-, and cellular-level organization and physiology in powerful new ways. Thusly combined, diceCT is now realizing its potential to become a “hub” around which additional analytical techniques can be integrated, providing for new insights emerging from multiple levels of organization. This presentation discusses the rise and growing popularity of diceCT and related contrast-enhanced imaging techniques, how a culture of collaboration catapulted its success, and what potential new horizons lay in store with the network effects of its further adoption. Support or Funding Information Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences, Stony Brook University School of Medicine, the American Museum of Natural History, and the National Science Foundation (NSF EAGER 1450850, NSF DEB 1457180, NSF MRI 1725925, and NSF DEB 1754659 to PMG and colleagues) 3D diceCT snake head at 20 microns resolution, sectioned in frontal view and illustrating soft-tissue details in 2D (top left), with isolated brain adjacent in 3D (gray matter semi-transparent, white matter opaque) (top right). The intricate details and broad utility of diceCT are exemplified here with a diversity of 3D vertebrate brain models from lower left to lower right: fish, amphibian, squamate reptile, bird, and mammal (not to scale). Staining and imaging by N.J. Kley and P. M. Gignac. This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Impact of fertilizer urea on liver histopathology of fresh water snake head, Channa punctata

The International Scientific Research Organization for Science, Engineering and Technology (ISROSET) is a Non-Profit Organization; The ISROSET is dedicated to improvement in academic sectors of Science (Chemistry, Bio-chemistry, Zoology, Botany, Biotechnology, Pharmaceutical Science, Bioscience, Bioinformatics, Biometrics, Biostatistics, Microbiology, Environmental Management, Medical Science, Forensic Science, Home Science, Library Science, Material Science Military Science, Physical Science, Physical Education Science, Educational Science, Fisheries, seed technology, Agriculture, Forestry Science, Mathematics, Physics, Statistics and Geology/Earth Science), Computer Science, Engineering and Information Technology, Commerce, Management, Economics Sociology and Social Science.

Prospective Anaylysis of Electrolytic Changes in Vitreous Humour Regarding Estimation of Time Since Death

Prospective Anaylysis of Electrolytic Changes in Vitreous Humour Regarding Estimation of Time Since Death

Channa royi (Teleostei: Channidae): a new species of snakehead from Andaman Islands, India

A new species of snakehead fish Channa royi sp. nov., has been described based on 21 specimens collected from the South, Middle and North Andaman Islands, India. It is distinguished from all its congeners by a greenish-grey dorsum, pale brown to black pectoral fin with 2-3 inconspicuous semicircular bands, a series of 7-9 obliquely-arranged, saddle-like, dark olive to grey oblique streaks on green background on upper half of the body, 42-45 pored lateral-line scales, 12-13 branched caudal rays, 6-7 pre-dorsal scales, 43 vertebrae, two rows of teeth on the lower jaw, an outer row of numerous minute slender, pointed teeth and single inner row of large uniform sized teeth without any large canine like teeth on the anterior fourth of the lower jaw. Phylogenetically C. royi sp. nov. is closely related to C. harcourtbutleri, with a genetic distance (K2-P) of 2.4-2.8%, but morphologically differs in having greater inter-orbital width, fewer pelvic-fin rays (5 vs. 5-7, mode 6); fewer caudal-fin rays (ii- i, 10-12, i-ii vs. ii, 15, ii); more pre-dorsal scales (6-7 vs. 4) and fewer mid row lateral-line scales (9-13 vs. 15-16). Though Channa royi sp. nov. is a part of C. gachua species-group, it differs from the topotypic C. gachua from Bengal with higher pair-wise sequence distance of 19.5-20.9%.

Determination of lethal dose of Aeromonas hydrophila Ah17 strain in snake head fish Channa striata

Aeromonas hydrophila is a major bacterial fish pathogen which causes economic losses in the aquaculture. The study determined the Letha Dose (LD50-96h) of A. hydrophila Ah17 strain (isolated from EUS infected Channa striata) in C. striata. C. striata were challenged with three different concentration of A. hydrophila Ah17 strain 1.0 × 107, 1.0 × 108, 1.0 × 109 CFU/mL. The LD50-96h values were found to be 4.1 × 108 CFU/mL. Percentage of mortality was observed as 10%, 40% and 70% in 1.0 × 107, 1.0 × 108 and 1.0 × 109 CFU/mL respectively in challenged fish. Microbial load was calculated on muscle, kidney, liver and spleen with highest load was observed in muscle and lowest in kidney. Level of liver enzymes such as Aspartate aminotransferase (AST), Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT), and Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) were increased compared to control fish. Level of mRNA expression of antioxidant genes such as Catalase (cat), Manganese Superoxide Dismutase (MnSOD), Glutathione Peroxidase (GPx) were high in liver tissue of all treated groups than control. Clinical signs were observed after intraperitoneal treatment of Ah17 in C. striata. Clinical signs such as lesions on the site of injection, imbalanced state, changes in the movement of pectoral fins, depigmentation on the tail of caudal fin and irregular lesions on the muscle region were observed. Thus the study concluded that, the LD50-96h value of A. hydrophila Ah17 strain was 4.1 × 108 CFU/mL and exhibited potential pathogenic effect upon experimental infection in snakehead murrel C. striata.

A Jug from Sarata

The results of the visual study of well-known and repeatedly published jag from grave no. 13 of the barrow no. 10 near Sarata village in Odesa Region are shown in the paper. The barrow was excavated by professor of the Kyiv St. Volodymyr University F.I. Knauer in 1888—1890. According to the publication of the first results of study, the localization and composition of the barrow group is specified. In the paper the burial no. 13 and the vessel which was placed behind the scull are described. The study of the decoration of Sarata jug de visu in the National Museum of History of Ukraine allows to conclude that the volutes typical for the Basarabi Culture were ending not only with curls as was previously considered but with two heads of snakes (fig. 4, 3). The volute with the snake head was filled with white paste on the right side, and with pink paste on the left. The enlargement of images suggests that the heads appeared later. They were marked by deep notches, not by a small-notched stamp by which the ornament of the vessel was spouted. The white paste filling the head of snake is more dense on the right side. These observations somewhat change the opinion on the image on Sarata vessel. Probably the images were made in different time. So, the initial decoration was engraved during the manufacture of the vessel among Culture of Basarabi. The image of the snake heads was added later. Perhaps it was done while preparing the vessel for a funerary ritual — after all the snake image had a chthonic meaning in many cultures. There was made a conclusion that the jug was decorated not with geometrical but with subject ornament. The aviability of realistic depicted heads of snakes allows recall the Scythian animal style. No one can exclude that the Sarata burial had been made just in the Early Scythian time using the vessel preserved as a relic for a long time. If such observations will receive additional arguments the burial no. 13 of the barrow no. 10 near Sarata could be included in the small group of Early Scythian burials of the Steppe zone.

Pertumbuhan dan Kadar Albumin Ikan Gabus (Channa striata) yang Diberi Pakan Keong Mas dengan Dosis Berbeda

This study aimed to determine the optimum dose of apple snail to improve the growth and albumin content of snake head fish. The fish were reared in 9 plastic container (diameter of 50 cm and height 55 cm). All container were filled with freshwater 10 L in each container filled with 5 fish (initial weight : 32,3 ± 1,7g). Three doses of apple snail : 10% of fish biomassa (treatment A), 15% of fish biomassa (treatment B) and 20% of fish biomassa (treatment C) fed to the fish for 45 days of rearing. The fish fed with apple snail in three times a day (08.00, 12.00 and 16.00). The results showed that the fish fed with different dosage of apple snail were not significantly different in weight gain, spesific growth rate (SGR), feed conversion ratio (FCR) feed eficiency (FE) and survival rate (SR) of snake head fish. The weight gain of fish was ranged between 19.55 ± 1.78-25.60 ± 2.10 g, SGR of fish was ranged between 1.05 - 2.23%, FCR of fish was ranged 4.3 - 6.19 , FE of fish was ranged between 16.58 - 23.30%. The highest of feed consumption was found fish fed with 15% and 20% of apple snail. While, the highest of albumin content was found in the fish fed with 15% of apple snail dosage.Keywords : growth, albumin, snake head fish, Channa striata, apple snail

DINAMIKA POPULASI IKAN GABUS (Channa striata) DI RAWA DANAU PANGGANG, KALIMANTAN SELATAN

The province of South Kalimantan has the largest peat swamp that is named Danau Panggang Swamp with an area of 5,390.7 Ha. This swamp has ecological, economic and potential functions of a large fishery resource. The purposes of this study are to evaluate the exploitation rate of Snake Head Fish (Channa striata) in Danau Panggang Swamp, by population dynamic analysis using FISAT program of Von Bertalanffy method. The results showed that the growth pattern of Snake Head Fish (Channa striata) has the tendency to grow negative allometric with 63.4 cm of long infifer (L¥), growth rate (k) 0.15 per year, theoretical age at the time of the fish is equal to 0 (t0) is -1.48257 years. While the natural mortality rate (M) was 0.43, the mortality rate due to catch (F) of 0.69/year and the total mortality rate (Z) of 1.12/year, and the rate of exploitation value E = 0.62. These results indicated that the exploitation rate of Head Snake Fish (Channa striata) in Danau Panggang swamp has a tendency to overfishing.

Matsamor (Armenia) after five seasons of excavations

The Metsamor site in the 2017 season was excavated in two areas. The main area was the so-called town area where several dwellings from the Early Iron Age were cleared. Evidence of violent site destruction included two human skeletons belonging most probably to victims of a sudden attack, left unburied after the town had been destroyed. The cemetery was the second investigated area. Exploration of kurgan XIX demonstrated that it had been looted. Nevertheless, some human remains and several artifacts in the form of bronze snake head bracelets were recorded inside the burial chamber.

Performa Kualitas Telur Ikan Gabus (Channa striata blkr) Dengan Pemberian Pakan Berbeda Dalam Wadah Terkontrol

This study aims to determine the management techniques of snakehead fish in the spawning process conducted in a controlled container and to know the performance of egg quality of snakehead fish. The experimental method was done experimentally by using a complete randomized design (RAL) with three feeding treatments and three replications, the treatment consisted of treatment A using 38% artificial protein, B treatment using rucah (fresh fish), and C treatment using mascot . The test animal used is the snake head totaling 49 tail, with the size of weight 350 grams up to 800 grams. The variables observed in this research consist of fecundity, hatchability, survival rate and water quality. The feed treatment A (golden snail) resulted in the highest number of eggs (fecundity) 5928 grains, followed by treatment B (feed trash) that is 4360 grains, and treatment A (pellet feed) ie 4134 grains. The result of hatching rate analysis at the highest treatment A reached 92,10%, in treatment B hatching degree was obtained 71,42%, while at treatment C obtained 56,60%. The observation variable for seed survival rate in treatment A resulted in 4367 head, whereas at treatment B obtained larvae 2245 tail, and at treatment C obtained 1450 tail. Based on the results of the research I can conclude that with different did not give a real effect on the number of eggs, hatchability and survival rate in snake head. While for water quality measurement obtained temperature value around 27-320C, brightness 30 - 40 cm, oxygen and pH at normal value 7. Keywords : Quality eggs, snakehead fish, Feed

Swamp land optimization in supporting food security and enhancing farmers welfare in South Sumatra Indonesia

Swamp land in Indonesia spread in Sumatra, Kalimantan and West Papua. In Sumatra the largest swamp land area is located in South Sumatera Province. Unfortunately only few of the areas have been utilized due to its fragility, in which farmers could only cultivate rice on it once a year. The purpose of this paper is to develop a feasible farming pattern in swamp land to help farmers and practitioners in optimizing it by managing its water level. Shallow and mid swamp land can be cultivated using rotation model of crops (rice, corn, cassava), horticulture (cucumber, long beans, watermelon etc), fish farming (catfish, snake head fish, tilapia), and duck farming, whereas submergence tolerant rice varieties can be cultivated alternating with fish farming in deep swamp land. This study shows that such swamp land management is financially feasible showing by its positive NPV value, BCR value is above 1.00, and IRR value is greater than the interest rate. Therefore, implementation of this farming pattern is expected to increase farmers’ income and household food supply as well as village food supply.

ISOLATION AND ENZYMATIC ACTIVITY TEST OF PROBIOTIC CANDIDATE FROM DANAU PANGGANG SWAMP ECONOMICAL FISHES DIGESTIVE TRACT

Aim of this research were isolation of probiotics candidate from digestive tract of Danau Panggang swamp fishes and amylolitic, proteolytic, and lipolyticenzyme activity test. Sample fishes were snake head (Channa striata), climbing perch (Anabas testudineus), and Siamese gouramy (Trichogaster pectoralis) as a refresentatif sample from carnivorous, omnivorous, and herbivorous fish. Medium containing starch, skim milk and olive oil used as selective media. Result of this research was successfully isolated probiotic candidate whom grow well and had enzyme activity from C. Striata obtained 11 isolate, 12 isolate from A. testudineus and T. pectoralis respectively. Higher amilolytic activity was C3GHDP, I3PDP4 had a higher lipolytic activity, D4SSDP1 and H3PDP had a higher proteolytic activity. Among those isolate G1PDPsp had a amilolytic, proteolytic and lipolytic activity.

MUTU ORGANOLEPTIK DAN KIMIA ABON IKAN GABUS (CHANNA STRIATA) YANG DISUBSTITUSI SUKUN (ARTOCARPUS ALTILIS)

<p><em>The aim of research was to determine the effect of substitution breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) organoleptic quality and chemical content shredded. This research is experimental, with five treatments. Organoleptic tests carried snake head with breadfruit substitution processed into shredded. The study was conducted using a CRD (completely randomized design) with five treatments and two replications. Analyses were performed using analysis of variance to see the effect of adding breadfruit between treatments. If the results differ significantly (F count> F table) then continued with DNMRT test at 5% level. Chemical proximate analysis conducted shredded. Shredded most preferred is the treatment of C made from snake head 83.37% and 16.33% breadfruit. The protein content decreased with increasing number of substitutions breadfruit, otherwise the fiber content increases. Chemical Ingredients shredded were 438 Calories, 31.5% carbohydrate, 19.8% protein, 25.9% fat, 8% ash content and moisture content of 14.8% and 1,12 g fiber. Shredded is made of snake head 83.37% and 16.33% breadfruit meet standard SII shredded. Except for the water content is still rather high (14.8%) is in excess of the permitted standards SII shredded by 10%.</em></p>

Testing the Snake Head Strategy: Does Killing or Capturing Its Leaders Reduce a Terrorist Group's Activity?

Since the attacks of 9/11 the search for effective counter- terror strategies has become an urgent priority for policy makers. Dr. Audrey Kurth Cronin, a Professor at the National War College, has argued that the United States has made numerous missteps in developing counter-terror strategies because of its limited experience with the phenomenon.i Quantitative tests on databases of terrorist activity can help us examine the effects of various strategies in order to determine their degree of impact. One strategy that is considered to be effective by conventional wisdom is “decapitation” – the tactic of removing the leadership of terrorist organizations. Besides its presumed efficacy, the decapitation strategy is also pursued as a matter of justice and in order to reassure the society targeted by terrorists that its government is taking action on its behalf. This paper tests the effectiveness of the decapitation strategy in terms of the reduction of terrorist activity.

Three-dimensional trajectories affect the epaxial muscle activity of arboreal snakes crossing gaps.

The need for long-axis support is widespread among non-aquatic vertebrates and may be particularly acute for arboreal snakes when many vertebrae span sizable gaps between branches with diverse orientations. Hence, we used brown tree snakes (Boiga irregularis) bridging gaps to test how three-dimensional trajectories affected muscle activity and whether these motor patterns differed from those for the locomotion of terrestrial snakes and movements of other vertebrates. We used five trajectories: pitch angles of 90, 0 and -90deg (downward) when yaw=0 deg, and 90deg yaw angles to the left and right when pitch=0deg. We recorded movement and electromyograms from the three largest epaxial muscles, which from dorsal to ventral are the semispinalis-spinalis (SSP), longissimus dorsi (LD) and iliocostalis (IL). Overall, the SSP had extensive bilateral activity, which resembled the motor pattern during the dorsiflexion of sidewinding snakes. Unlike any previously described terrestrial snake locomotion, bilateral activity of the LD and IL was also common during gap bridging. The largest amounts of muscle activity usually occurred for horizontal gaps, and muscle activity decreased markedly as soon as the snake's head touched the far edge of the gap. Snakes had the least amount of muscle activity for pitch=-90deg. While turning sideways, muscles on the convex side had less activity when turning compared with the concave side. Hence, the orientation relative to gravity profoundly affected muscle activity during gap bridging, and these complex three-dimensional movements involved several previously undescribed variants of axial motor pattern.