Snake Head Research Articles

The effect of L-Arginine from Giant Snake Head fish (Channa micropeltes) on neuroinflammation and neuron damage in traumatic brain injury in rats

Backgrounds: Traumatic brain injury has high mortality and morbidity. The involvement of neuroinflammatory responses and neuronal damage in traumatic brain injury is the basis for the development of renewable neuroprotective agents, one of which is the amino acid L-Arginine. The amino acid L-Arginine which can be found in Giant Snake Head fish (Channa micropeltes) is thought to inhibit anti-inflammatory effects through the Arg-1 signaling pathway. Aims: To prove and analyze the effect of giving L-Arginine Giant Snake Head fish on neuroinflammation and neuronal damage in a rat model of traumatic brain injury. Methods: This randomized controlled trial (RCT) study used a posttest-only control group design. Thirty-five male rats (Rattus norvegicus) with the Wistar strain were randomly divided into five treatment groups, namely the normal control group (N), negative control (KN), and 3 treatment groups (A-C). The KN and A-C groups were modeled after traumatic brain injury and given L-Arginine at a dose of 0.5; 1.5; and 3 g/kgBW/day for 7 days specifically A-C. Brain tissue samples were used for the examination of TLR4, TNF-α, GSDMD, Caspase-3, and histopathological features. All data were analyzed using the Kruskall-Wallis test, except for GSDMD expression with a significance <0.05. Results: The mean TLR4 expression in A (15.7 ± 5.35), B (12.9 ± 5.67), and C (11.4 ± 6.27) were lower and significant compared to KN, but higher and significant compared to N. The same pattern appears in the decrease in TNF-α expression, Caspase-3 expression, and histopathology of brain tissue damage. The mean relative expression of GSDMD to N in A (1.3 ± 0.53), B (1.2 ± 0.52), and C (1.2 ± 0.60) was higher than in KN, but not significant. Relative expression of GSDMD to Beta Actin, A and B have the same higher expression than C, KN, and N. Conclusion: Expression of TLR-4, TNF-α, Caspase-3 and histopathology of brain tissue damage in traumatic brain injury model rats given Giant Snake Head fish L-Arginine were lower than without L-Arginine. Meanwhile, the expression of GSDMD in traumatic brain injury model rats when given Giant Snake Head fish L-Arginine was slightly higher than without L-Arginine.

Dynamic evolutionary interplay between ontogenetic skull patterning and whole-head integration.

The arrangement and morphology of the vertebrate skull reflect functional and ecological demands, making it a highly adaptable structure. However, the fundamental developmental and macroevolutionary mechanisms leading to different vertebrate skull phenotypes remain unclear. Here we exploit the morphological diversity of squamate reptiles to assess the developmental and evolutionary patterns of skull variation and covariation in the whole head. Our geometric morphometric analysis of a complex squamate ontogenetic dataset (209 specimens, 169 embryos, 44 species), covering stages from craniofacial primordia to fully ossified bones, reveals that morphological differences between snake and lizard skulls arose gradually through changes in spatial relationships (heterotopy) followed by alterations in developmental timing or rate (heterochrony). Along with dynamic spatiotemporal changes in the integration pattern of skull bone shape and topology with surrounding brain tissues and sensory organs, we identify a relatively higher phenotypic integration of the developing snake head compared with lizards. The eye, nasal cavity and Jacobson's organ are pivotal in skull morphogenesis, highlighting the importance of sensory rearrangements in snake evolution. Furthermore, our findings demonstrate the importance of early embryonic, ontogenetic and tissue interactions in shaping craniofacial evolution and ecological diversification in squamates, with implications for the nature of cranio-cerebral relations across vertebrates.

Pengaruh Pemberian Probiotik Bahan Herbal pada Pakan terhadap Pertumbuhan Benih Ikan Gabus

Purpose: To determine the effect of giving different herbal probiotics to feed on growth in absolute length, absolute weight, SGR, FCR, and SR. Methods: This study was conducted over 30 days in May. The research used a completely randomized design (CRD) with four treatments and three replications. Results: This study provide basic information to increase productivity in the maintenance of snake head fish seeds in a controlled manner using probiotics at a dose of 10 ml/kg of feed. The best results showed that the use of herbal probiotics at a dose of 10 ml/kg of feed resulted in a survival rate (71.11%), the highest growth rate (3.77%), and the best feed conversion (1.2). Limitations: Based on the results of the study, the use of probiotics at a dose of 10 ml/kg of feed improved the growth performance of snake head fish seeds reared in controlled containers. Contribution: The snake head fish is a swamp fish that has important economic value because it has many benefits.

Development of Science Education Game Base on Computer Vision for Primary School Student

In this research, a discussion was carried out regarding the use of computer vision in educational games developed using the Python programming language and the Mediapipe library. Game applications must be able to capture hand movements and create hand landmark models. These landmarks are used to move the snake's head in the Snake Game and answer questions in the Virtual Quiz. The aim of this research is to develop interest and increase focus in elementary school students with educational games. An analysis was carried out on the results of the respondent's questionnaire to determine the impact of using educational games on students' interest in learning. It was found that 80% of these educational games helped students understand learning concepts. The games developed are also appropriate to the level and knowledge of skills, especially for grade 2 and 3 students with a percentage score of 60%. There are obstacles to the development of this educational game, namely 30% of respondents experiencing difficulties in using it. Sometimes hand movements cannot be captured properly, if the distance of the hand from the camera is too close or far.

Isolation of Plasmid Dna from Bacteria Associated With Ulcerative Disease in <i>Channa punctatus</i>

Ulcerative disease has been prevalent particularly in snake head and catfishes. A number of virulent bacteria are associated with this disease. A variety of important properties viz., virulent determinants, antimicrobial resistance, etc. of the pathogenic bacteria that enabled them to thrive better in the adverse environment, have been proven to be plasmid encoded. Keeping in mind the importance of plasmid DNA, this study has been undertaken. Plasmid DNA was isolated by alkaline lysis method from the cultured bacteria associated with ulcerative disease of snake head, Channa punctatus. Isolation of plasmid DNA followed by agarose gel electrophoresis analysis have revealed the presence of a single plasmid DNA in the cultured microbe which comigrated with 23 kb DNA fragment of the lambda DNA digested by Hind III. The cultured microbe was characterised as: Gram-negative motile rod, catalase-positive, oxidase-negative, indole-negative, non-HS producing, lactose fermenting, acid and gas produced from glucose, methyl red-negative, Voges Prauskauer-positive and urea negative. It seems from the above mentioned biochemical as well as morphological characteristics that the cultured microbe was very similar to Enterobacter and Citrobacter.

FISH GUT ANALYSIS OF DEMERSAL FISH SPECIES OF DILAWARA RESERVOIR OF DHAR TEHSIL OF DHAR DISTRICT, MADHYA PRADESH

Dilawara reservoir of Dhar, Madhya Pradesh, India; an important drinking water source of Dhar tehsil is also widely used for fishculture besides irrigation and domestic purpose. In the present study, the demersal fish fauna of Dilawara Reservoir were selected for the gut content study and included species of catfish (Heteropneustes fossilis and Clarias batrachus), minor carps (Rasbora daniconius, Danio melaharicus, Puntisticto, P. sarana): fingerlings of major and common carp, snake head (Channa striatus, C. punctatus), one species of clupeide (Gadusia chapra) and one species of Mastocembalidae (Mastucembalus armatus). The selection of fish species was made on their feeding habits and their availability throughout the year. The food of demersal fish species of Dilawara Reservoir varied and diversified to include, mollusks, crustaceans, annelids, insects, snails, fish, macrophytes and various algae. Gut content analysis showed that most of the fish species preyed on zooplankton benthic animals except for fishes belonging to Family Clupeidae (Gudusia chapra) and minor carps. Their Stomach content analysis showed that macrophytes and algae were exclusively the dominant food items observed in their stomachs and were categorized as omnivorous

Substitution of fish meal with maggot meal (Hermetia Illucens) on the survival and growth performance of snakehead (Channa Striata)

The high protein content and complete nutrition are the main reasons for maggots as a source of animal protein for fish feed. This research aims to substitute fish meal (FM) in feed with maggots meal (MM) in snake head fish formulation feed. The study used a completely randomized design with 4 treatments and 3 replications A(100%FM), BFM75%; MM25%), C (FM50%;MM50%), D(25FM;75%MM). Feeding was carried out 4 times a day for 60 days with a density of 1 fish/l. The results of the ANOVA statistical test on survival and relative weight showed that there were no significant differences between all treatments. The survival value of treatments A, B, C and D was >90%, the highest relative weight gain was on the 30th day of treatment C (23.52 ± 2.37), on the 60th day the relative weight value for all treatments was between 39, 86±4.68 to 42.76±3.90. Treatment C showed the best feed responsibility and feed storage for up to ± 2.5 months. Fat analysis will be higher by increasing the percentage of maggot meal in the feed. It was concluded that the use of fish meal substitution with maggot meal up to 75% in feed can still be used for rearing snakehead fish

Short term effect of p-nonylphenol (p-NP) on serum metabolites of snake head fish, Ophiocephalus punctatus (Bloch, 1793)

Short term effect of p-nonylphenol (p-NP) on serum metabolites of snake head fish, Ophiocephalus punctatus (Bloch, 1793)

The Effectiveness of the Combination of Snakehead Fish Extract and Acupresure on Albumin Conditions and Blood Pressure of Pregnant Women with Preeclampsia

One of the causes of maternal death is preeclampsia. Preeclampsia and eclampsia are caused by factors that decrease serum albumin (hypoalbuminemia) which causes a decrease in intravascular hypovolemic pressure. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of snakehead fish extract and acupressure on albumin levels and blood pressure in pregnant women with preeclampsia. The research method is a non-randomized pretest-posttest control group design study and was conducted at a health center in Central Java, Indonesia. A sample of 30 subjects; 15 subjects in the experimental group, and 15 subjects in the control group. The experimental group was given snakehead fish extract 2x 500 mg every day for 14 days and acupressure at points GV 20, Li 3, and Ki 3 6 times for 14 days. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure measurements were performed on day 1 and day 14. Data analysis used paired parametric t test. The results showed that snake head extract and acupressure for 14 days had a significant decrease in diastolic from 12 mmHg to 10.66 mmHg (p=0.000), while in the control group there was no decrease in systolic blood pressure of 0.667 (p=0.670) and systolic blood pressure was 0.667 (p=0.670). pressure 0.667 (p=0.670). diastolic 2.66 p=0.041. In the experimental group there was an increase in albumin levels of 1.12 (p = 0.000. In the control group, albumin levels were -0.14 before and after the measurement did not affect albumin levels with a value of p = 0.082. Giving snakehead fish extract and acupressure at the KI 3 point, LV3, and GV 20 were effective in increasing albumin levels and lowering blood pressure in preeclamptic women.

The Effectiveness of the Combination of Snakehead Fish Extract and Acupresure on Albumin Conditions and Blood Pressure of Pregnant Women with Preeclampsia

One of the causes of maternal death is preeclampsia. Preeclampsia and eclampsia are caused by factors that decrease serum albumin (hypoalbuminemia) which causes a decrease in intravascular hypovolemic pressure. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of snakehead fish extract and acupressure on albumin levels and blood pressure in pregnant women with preeclampsia. The research method is a non-randomized pretest-posttest control group design study and was conducted at a health center in Central Java, Indonesia. A sample of 30 subjects; 15 subjects in the experimental group, and 15 subjects in the control group. The experimental group was given snakehead fish extract 2x 500 mg every day for 14 days and acupressure at points GV 20, Li 3, and Ki 3 6 times for 14 days. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure measurements were performed on day 1 and day 14. Data analysis used paired parametric t test. The results showed that snake head extract and acupressure for 14 days had a significant decrease in diastolic from 12 mmHg to 10.66 mmHg (p=0.000), while in the control group there was no decrease in systolic blood pressure of 0.667 (p=0.670) and systolic blood pressure was 0.667 (p=0.670). pressure 0.667 (p=0.670). diastolic 2.66 p=0.041. In the experimental group there was an increase in albumin levels of 1.12 (p = 0.000. In the control group, albumin levels were -0.14 before and after the measurement did not affect albumin levels with a value of p = 0.082. Giving snakehead fish extract and acupressure at the KI 3 point, LV3, and GV 20 were effective in increasing albumin levels and lowering blood pressure in preeclamptic women.

Biological Flora of Britain and Ireland: Fritillaria meleagris

Abstract This account presents information on all aspects of the biology of Fritillaria meleagris L. (Snake's Head Fritillary). The main topics are presented within the standard framework of the Biological Flora of Britain and Ireland: distribution, habitat, communities, responses to biotic factors, responses to environment, structure and physiology, phenology, floral and seed characters, herbivores and disease, history, and conservation. Fritillaria meleagris is a perennial spring bulb that grows in wet mesotrophic meadows and wet openings in woodlands. In Britain, it is localised to floodplain meadows but occurs as an intentional introduction in a range of habitats. There are several large populations on the floodplains of the River Thames and its tributaries in Wiltshire, Berkshire and Oxfordshire. Fritillaria meleagris occurs on mesotrophic alluvium soils often overlaying calcareous gravel with a relatively wide pH range. It favours a high ground water table during winter months and spring followed by good drainage of the soil throughout the summer. Fritillaria meleagris plants regularly experience prolonged dormancy. From 30% to 99% of plants in a population can remain below‐ground for more than a year. Fritillaria meleagris produces nectar and is mainly pollinated in April by bumblebee queens in England. Other pollinators include insects of the orders Hymenoptera, Diptera and Lepidoptera, particularly bumblebees, hoverflies and butterflies. The release of the seeds from the pod in May–June can take a month. Seeds require warm and cold treatments for the embryo to fully form. Air pockets aid seed flotation on the surface of flood water for up to a month. The seeds of Fritillaria meleagris do not form a seed bank, germinating either during flotation or on bare ground. Fritillaria meleagris declined in Britain during the 20th century due to agricultural improvement and ploughing of floodplain grasslands. In all, 20 or so remaining populations survive in ancient hay meadows. Several of its British locations receive statutory protection as designated sites. However, recent work suggests that F. meleagris was probably introduced to Britain as an ornamental, and the level of protection it receives is therefore likely to change.

Improvement of Winding Gait for Snake Robot

In order to solve the problem that the image information is difficult to handle due to the swing of the snake robot’s head during its serpentine locomotion, this paper improves the control function of the general winding gait for the orthogonal joint-connected snake-like robot, and the useful image information is obtained by reducing the swing of the camera-mounted snake’s head based on the improved function. Combining the Sigmoid function with the general function to control the rotation of the yaw joints and applying the Gaussian function to the pitch joints to lift the snake head off the ground, this new control function presented in this paper not only enables the joints to rotate smoothly, but also decreases the swing range of the snake head. Additionally, it can also fasten the robot’s movement. Experiments based on MATLAB and GAZEBO platform demonstrate the superiority and effectiveness of the improved winding gait.

Hoodoo, Kentucky, Workers Adminstration Project, Poetry, Black Folklore, Ancestors and Memory

A poem about realizing freedom through transformation. The poem “ ‘Hoodoo’ Inspired by Mamie Hansberry from Christian Country Kentucky” is based on the voice of Mamie Hansberry, a formerly enslaved woman from Kentucky. Hansberry’s words were recorded by historians and archivists who worked for the Workers Project Administration (WPA). The WPA was a Depression-era program where historians and writers went around the South to collect the stories of the former enslaved. This program provided an opportunity for Black voices to be added and centralized in the archives. Despite positive intentions, the archivists were clouded by their own internal bias. Most of the collectors were white Southern males who held strong biases that influenced the topics they chose to explore. For example, Black folklore is featured heavily in the WPA narratives. To the recorder, these beliefs might have been viewed as eccentric and uncivilized. When interacting with Mamie Hansberry, they more than likely prompted her into explaining “Hoodism”. Instead of a simple introduction, however, Hansberry spun an oral rhyming poem, “A snake head an’ er lizard tail, Hoo-doo; Not close den a mile of jail, Hoo-doo.” Through her rhythmic re-telling, she showcases the beauty and power that resides in “Hoodisms”, that was probably lost by the white male listeners. The archives often offer us silence on Black voices that are women, poor, and rural. If they were recorded, they are often tainted by the bias of our racist and sexist systems, such as in the WPA narratives. Instead of looking to the archives to better tell the stories of my ancestors, I choose to do so through poetry allowing me to reimagine and explore where the archives offer me no assistance. Removing the white male gaze, I give my version of “Hoodism” based on the long line of Kentucky Black women who came before me, like Mamie Hansberry. This is my homage to their voices and stories. Their stories are not lost or forgotten.

Linking neurons to immunity: Lessons from Hydra.

According to the Greek mythology (1), Heracles’ second labor was the destruction of the Lernaean Hydra, a fearsome fire-breathing monster with a dog-like body and nine snake heads. Many had tried to slay the Lernaean Hydra but in vain: Any head that was cut off regrew and multiplied. It is remarkable how consistent the narrative of this myth is with our recent understanding of tissue and organ regeneration. Heracles was successful not only because of his divine origin (he was the son of Zeus after all) and the help of Athena, but particularly because of the assistance he received from his nephew Iolaus, who was assigned the job of cauterizing the exposed stumps of the Hydra’s severed heads. Of course, we now understand why Iolaus’ contribution was so critical: His flame consumed the local stem cells and stopped them from generating a new head! In PNAS, Klimovich et al. (2) go one step further and provide a reasonable explanation as to why the Lernaean Hydra could remain healthy despite inhabiting the dirty waters of an unfathomable Peloponnesian swamp. Using Hydra as the experimental model organism, the authors define the molecular identity of a unique group of neurons that are responsible for the rhythmic contractions of the body and provide insight into the immune mechanisms they (and other neurons) employ to regulate the animal’s microbial environment. These findings reveal remarkable similarities between the pacemaker activities of the Hydra nervous system and the nervous system of the gut in vertebrates (including humans), advancing our understanding of the interaction between microbiota and host organ systems. Hydra , a freshwater metazoan of the phylum Cnidaria , was first introduced in the laboratory in 1740s (3), when the Swiss naturalist Abraham Trembley discovered that cutting the body of this animal in half resulted in the … [↵][1]1Email: vassilis.pachnis{at}crick.ac.uk. [1]: #xref-corresp-1-1

Snakehead fish extract as an enhancer of vascular endothelial growth factor and nitric oxide levels in cerebral angiogenesis: an insight of stroke therapy.

Aim To assess the effect of snakehead fish extract administration in angiogenesis focusing on the level of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), nitric oxide (NO) and VEGF receptor 2(R2) expression is ischemic stroke models. Methods An experimental study was conducted on 5 groups of ischemic stroke rats models: Group K- without carotid artery ligation, Group K+ with artery ligation, Group P1 with artery ligation and administration of 200 mg/day extract, Group P2 with artery ligation and 400 mg/day extract, and Group P3 with artery ligation and 800 mg/day extract. The VEGF expression and NO levels were assessed on day 3. Results Snakehead fish extract significantly increased VEGF levels along with increasing doses, in which the highest VEGF level was observed in P3 group (361.7±40.2; p<0.001). The NO level also increased along with an increasing dose of snakehead fish extract, in which the highest NO level was found in P3 group(59.43±0.88 μmol/gr; p<0.001). The VEGFR2 expression also increased significantly after snakehead extract administration along with increasing doses (p<0.001) in which administration of 800mg extract yielded the highest VEGFR2 expression compared with lower doses (17.7 vs. 15.6; p<0.001) Conclusion Snakehead fish extract administration increased angiogenesis process marked by an increased level of VEGF, NO and VEGFR2 expression in ischemic stroke rat models.

PENGARUH TINGKAT KETINGGIAN AIR MEDIA PEMELIHARAAN TERHADAP KELANGSUNGAN HIDUP DAN PERTUMBUHAN BENIH IKAN GABUS (Channa striata)

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh ketinggian air media pemeliharaan terhadap kelangsungan hidup dan pertumbuhan benih ikan gabus (Channa striata). Penelitian ini menggunakan Rancangan Acak Lengkap dengan lima perlakuan, yakniP1 (Ketinggian air 3 cm), P2 (Ketinggian air 5 cm), P3 (Ketinggian air 7 cm), P4 (Ketinggian air 9 cm), P5 (Ketinggian air 11 cm) dan setiap perlakuan memiliki 3 ulangan sehingga total percobaan sebanyak 15 unit. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa terdapat pengaruh yang nyata (p &lt; 0,05) terhadap kelangsungan hidup, pertumbuhan mutlak dan pertumbuhan spesifik, sehingga dilakukan uji lanjut untuk mengetahui perlakuan terbaik dalam menghasilkan kelangsungan hidup, pertumbuhan mutlak dan pertumbuhan spesifik benih ikan gabus, diketahui bahwa P1 (Ketinggian air 3 cm) merupakan perlakuan dengan kelangsungan hidup terbaik sebesar 91,7% bagi benih ikan gabus. Sedangkan P2 (Ketinggian 5 cm) merupakan perlakuan terbaik dalam menghasilkan pertumbuhan mutlak dan spesifik.

Reinforcement learning-based collision-free path planner for redundant robot in narrow duct

Compared with obstacle avoidance in open environment, collision-free path planning for duct-enter task is often challenged by narrow and complex space inside ducts. For obstacle avoidance, redundant robot is usually applied for this task. The motion of redundant robot can be decoupled to end-effector motion and self-motion. Current methods for duct-enter task are not robust due to the difficulty to properly define the self-motion. This difficulty mainly comes from two aspects: the definition of distances from robot to obstacles and the fusion of multiple data. In this work, we adapt the ideas underlying the success of human to handling this kind tasks, variable optimization strategies and learning, for one robust path planner. Proposed planner applies reinforcement learning skills to learn proper self-motion and achieves robust planning. For achieving robust behavior, state-action planner is creatively designed with three especially designed strategies. Firstly, optimization function, the kernel part of self-motion, is considered as part of action. Instead of taking every joint motion, this strategy embeds reinforcement learning skills on self-motion, reducing the search domain to null space of redundant robot. Secondly, robot end orientation is taken into action. For duct-enter task, robot end link is the motion starter for exploring movement just like the snake head. The orientation of robot end link when passing through some position can be referred by following links. Hence the second strategy can accelerate exploring by reduce the null space to possible redundant robot manifold. Thirdly, path guide point is also added into action part. This strategy can divide one long distance task into several short distance tasks, reducing the task difficulty. After these creative designs, the planner has been trained with reinforcement learning skills. With the feedback of robot and environment state, proposed planner can choose proper optimization strategies, just like the human brain, for avoiding collision between robot body and target duct. Compared with two general methods, Virtual Axis method with orientation Guidance and Virtual Axis, experiment results show that the success rate is separately improved by 5.9% and 49.7%. And two different situation experiments are carried out on proposed planner. Proposed planner achieves 100% success rate in the situation with constant start point and achieves 98.7% success rate in the situation with random start point meaning that the proposed planner can handle the perturbation of start point and goal point. The experiments proves the robustness of proposed planner.

Az év vadvirága 2016-ban: a mocsári kockásliliom (Fritillaria meleagris)

Jelen közlemény rövid áttekintést nyújt a mocsári kockásliliom (Fritillaria meleagris L.) nevezéktanáról, rendszertanáról, alak- és szövettanáról, életciklusáról, fenológiájáról, szaporodás-biológiájáról, élőhelyválasztásáról, biotikus interakcióiról, hatóanyagairól, mikroszaporításáról, felhasználási lehetőségeiről és veszélyeztetettségéről. Pontosítottuk a faj európai elterjedési térképét és kiegészítéseket teszünk a hazai előfordulásaihoz. Saját adatokat közlünk a növény magképzési sikeréről, ezermagtömegéről, hazai állományainak demográfiai jellemzőiről, valamint termőhelyeinek talaj-adottságairól.

Prey Size and Feeding Rate Do Not Influence Trophic Morphology of Juvenile Water Snakes (Nerodia sipedon)

Gape-limited predators, such as snakes, might rely on phenotypic plasticity to cope with variation in prey size, but experimental studies have found mixed evidence for plasticity in snake head morphology. Our study sought to determine whether variation in prey size and feeding rate induce head size plasticity in Northern Water Snakes (Nerodia sipedon). We avoided limitations of previous studies by growing all neonates to a consistent final size (400 mm snout–vent length [SVL]), and uncoupling feeding rate and prey size as potential factors influencing head size through four feeding treatments: big–fast (one large prey item every week), big–slow (one large prey item every other week), small–fast (two small prey items every week), and small–slow (one small prey item every week). Snakes in fast treatments grew faster than snakes in slow treatments, but there were no strong effects of feeding rate or prey size treatments on multiple head size metrics. Females grew faster than males, however, and had longer jaw lengths at 400 mm SVL than did males. Unlike previous studies, our results do not support the presence of phenotypic plasticity in head size in N. sipedon, indicating that head size plasticity in snakes can be species and context specific.

East Texas

30 TODD DILLARD East Texas  My grandfather chopped the head off a rattlesnake with a garden hoe. “Don’t step on it,” he said, meaning the head. It bucked on the packed earth like a toppled windup toy. Open. Shut. Pink inside, brown out. Spring to fall as fast as a boy can gasp. He nailed the body to a dogwood outside the trailer. Soon as the screen door slammed shut behind him, bees trickled out of its neck. White bees, fat as bumbles, bobbing like fishing sinkers in a boat’s wake. It was the summer Mom’s shadow refused to stay attached to her, and nights my father prowled the house searching for it, calling: Soma, Soma, as Mom plucked beams of light from the bedlamp and sucked on them like sugarcane. When the snake head stopped moving I scooped it up with a shovel, deposited it below its body. I want to stop here and say something about heat. I want to stop here and say something about a dark back bedroom, how even as a boy I knew marriage was a steamer trunk filled with dry soil. I want to say these things because I want you to believe me through the details to beyond the details. I want you to nod when I say I spent most of my summer beneath that tree, the snake at first shriveling, but then, day by day, swelling, a whole hive of bees filling its belly, a sleeve of hum blooming, inflating, an aberrant moon. When I say the bees would land on my face I want you to know I wasn’t afraid. I wanted them there. I wanted them to take something from me and make of it something sweet. I would wait, mouth open, beneath the snake’s neck, desperate for a drop of honey to slide down my lips, down my throat. I am telling you this because I want you to know what it was like, waking one night, tiptoeing outside and watching my mother’s shadow wrench the snake off the tree. Gripping the severed neck, the shadow 31 rose into the air, the snake’s body now an impossible balloon. My balloon, I thought. But it wasn’t. Only the absence in the summer-stunned dark I could call my own. Though I couldn’t share it. Though I didn’t know that then. Though I would fail over and over at giving it away. Like a flower growing out of a snake head. How easy it is to pull it from the earth. But then the snake’s head closes. And no amount of pulling opens it again. So you bury it, but the next morning you can’t remember where. ...