Small Rocks Research Articles

Situation Awareness of Mars helicopter based on YOLOv7

Situation awareness on Mars is indispensable for various downstream applications such as navigation and path planning, mapping and scientific discover. However, current Mars rover platform suffered from the absence of global information, leading to mission reduction and the failure of global planning. Compared to the rover, Mars helicopter is a new type of attempt for Mars exploration, which can provide a wide range view of scenes to well support the above missions. To this end, in this paper we proposed a novel learning-based situation awareness model for Mars helicopter. We modified the Yolov7 model by embedding a new channel attention on its head to improve the accuracy of detection. Besides, we designed a Tiny-Scale Detection Module (TSDM) to capture small or hidden rocks in complex Martian surface. To achieve further refinement and validate our proposal, we built an open-source synthetic dataset in air view. After extensive experiments, our model achieved excellent outperforms than the baseline model in our Mars dataset.

LITERATUR REVIEW: PENCEGAHAN CEDERA DAN REHABILITASI PADA PELARI TRAIL

Trail running is sports activity that combines two activities, namely mountain climbing and running. Trail running activities are carried out on mountains that have tracks in the form of paths, in the form of ground stones, or a mixture of sand and small rocks. Trail running was first carried out in the United States of America and continues to develop in Indonesia for example Bandung, Probolinggo, Lombok dan Banyuwangi, Which have been associated in the form of ITRA (International Trail Running Association). The majority of trail running injuries occur in the lower legs, especially the knees and ankles. The main mechanisms underlying injury and injury development include inadequate neuromotor control-balance-coordination ,running through fatigue and abnormal kinematics on a variety of terrain. Pre-Rehabilitation programs such as strengthening the kinetic chain consisting of dynamic flexibility, neuromotor strength and balance, plyometrics exercises can encourage stable and also controlled movement on trails. Educating patients about symptoms of early musculoskeletal soreness and training adjustments also proved to help prevent injuries from developing into serious overuse injuries. Regarding to the increasing number of the injury in trail runners, this article was wrote to describe the role of injury prevention and safe training to reduce the risk of injury and also early rehabilitation program for the injured runners. Study by Vincent et all that review the injury prevention, safe training and rehabilitation to return to sport was the main source in the discussion. The review result showed that educating the runners to prevent injury and how to do the safe running shown a positive impact to reduce the numbers of injury. Early rehabilitation program also shown a good impact in promoting healing in injured runners.

Rock-mass heterogeneous rheological properties caused the formation of deep tension fractures

Tension failure is a unique phenomenon in solid Earth that occurs on scales ranging from large plate rift valleys to small laboratory rocks. On a slope scale, deep unloading tension fractures are distinct from conventional unloading fractures and are a unique geological phenomenon in valleys with high in-situ stress. To accurately reproduce the development and evolution of deep unloading tension fractures and to support major excavation projects, a series of works including geological investigation, laboratory tests, intrinsic model establishment, and numerical simulation were carried out in this study. The unloading rheological tests, accounting for time-dependent effects, uncover the heterogeneity in the rheological attributes of rock-mass strength parameters during valley downcutting. This heterogeneity manifests as a transition in rock-mass strength parameters that cohesion weakening-friction strengthening (CWFS). Drawing on the results of laboratory tests, a novel viscoelastic-plastic model, termed the WSR model, was proposed. This model takes into account both CWFS and rheological considerations. It has been applied to simulate deep unloading tension fractures in the Jinping I hydropower station (JP-I) and compared with conventional models. The results show that WSR model accurately reproduced the development and evolution of deep unloading tension fractures and the heterogeneity of rock-mass deformation during age evolution leads to the formation of deep unloading tension fractures. In this study, the rock-mass heterogeneous rheological properties were summarized as the heterogeneity of the rock-mass strength parameters during age deterioration and the heterogeneity of rock-mass deformation during age evolution; the WSR model was proposed to characterize the heterogeneous rheological property of rock-mass strength parameters and to reproduce the development and evolution of deep unloading tension fractures in the JP-I. This novel contribution to deep unloading tension fractures emphasizes that the rock-mass heterogeneous rheological properties lead to the formation of deep unloading tension fractures.

Characterization and chronology of charcoal found in the volcanic ashfall that impacted a late Valdivia community in coastal Ecuador

Several samples of fossilized wood (charcoal) were collected in the Papayita archaeological site, in coastal Ecuador. This carbonized material was encountered inside a layer of volcanic ash that sealed the site. The ash-sized tephra was produced by a sub-Plinian eruption from the Guagua Pichincha volcano contemporaneous with the late Valdivia phases during the Formative Period. Each of the samples was sectioned into 10 to 15 subsamples and examined under a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), producing high-resolution images with a large depth of field where the anatomical structures and their geochemical composition were vividly discernible. Each sample corresponds to organic matter of vegetable origin, that is, carbonized wood in the form of small rocks, whose appearance is that of carbonized woody tree trunks and or branches. We were able to observe vascular structures, specifically bundles of xylem. It was possible to conclude that these tracheids underwent a physicochemical transformation typical of petrification processes, leaving the molds intact. This allowed us to determine structural elements that support the identification of the group of plants to which these samples belong, through the methodology of comparison of the anatomical components of current species. The fossilized wood structures are three-dimensional and present characteristics that correspond to the group of higher plants, Gymnosperms, of the Podocarpaceae group. Among them, quadrangular tracheids, circular hole-shaped pits in the vascular system, and absent resin canals stand out. Central to the analysis is the presence of transverse parenchyma, which can be ascertained to correspond to vegetation from climates that are temperate or cold.

Phyllosilicate decomposition on Bennu due to prolonged surface exposure

The Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, and Security–Regolith Explorer (OSIRIS-REx) mission to carbonaceous asteroid (101955) Bennu performed detailed mapping with a suite of instruments to characterize the composition and geology of its surface. Here we use data from the OSIRIS-REx Thermal Emission Spectrometer (OTES) instrument to investigate the relationship of OTES-derived spectral indices to other derived data products from OTES, the OSIRIS-REx Camera Suite (OCAMS), and the OSIRIS-REx Visible and InfraRed Spectrometer (OVIRS) at global and local scales. We quantitatively confirm that high values of the OTES silicate stretching slope (from ∼10 to ∼12 μm) in midday spectra that are indicative of thin and/or patchy dust cover are strongly associated with low thermal inertia (high porosity), low albedo boulders on Bennu. These high porosity boulders have brecciated textures with embedded clasts that likely originated on Bennu's parent body or during its disruption. The high porosity of these boulders is a key factor in the local production of the dust or its entrapment, as some large, brecciated boulders with a lower porosity have little evidence of dust. A second OTES spectral parameter, the silicate bending band depth near 22.7 μm applied to early evening spectra, is not correlated to thermal inertia, but is weakly to strongly correlated to albedo, OVIRS-derived 1.05 μm and 2.74 μm band depths, OVIRS-derived hydrogen abundance, and modeled nanophase troilite abundance. In several regions on Bennu there is a strong spatial relationship between these parameters, whereby areas with shallower silicate bending bands also have shallower 1.05 μm and 2.74 μm bands and lower albedo with higher nanophase troilite abundances. These correlations, combined with analysis of the silicate bending band in laboratory experiments of space weathered and mildly heated carbonaceous chondrites, suggests that decreased silicate bending band depths signify decomposition of phyllosilicates, likely Fe-bearing, due to space weathering or mild heating (<600 °C) via solar radiation during Bennu's time in near-Earth space. There is a strong association of larger silicate bending band depths in areas dominated by small rocks and unresolved material and in areas with small (≤ 25 m) craters identified as the spectrally reddest on Bennu, suggesting that this material has been more recently exposed due to impact and/or mass wasting processes. The shallowest silicate bending depths are associated with larger rocks and boulders that appear to have the longest surface exposure history, although there is band depth variation among them suggesting either initial composition variation that resulted in different responses to space weathering or heating, or varied exposure history of individual boulders themselves. We predict that any grains returned from Bennu with a significant surface exposure history will be characterized by shallower 22.7 μm, 1.05 μm and 2.7 μm band depths and increased sulfide (troilite) abundance, as well as textural and chemical evidence for phyllosilicate dehydration.

Clutter Effect on a Combination of Microwave Imaging and Target Identification Using Ground-Penetrating Radar

This paper presents an experimental investigation of the effect of clutter on the performance of microwave imaging and target identification using ground-penetrating radar (GPR) for buried objects. Signals collected by the GPR were formed to be B-scan and 3D images to carry out the microwave imaging of buried objects. Poles extracted using the short-time matrix pencil method from a late-time response of the received signal collected at a specific position were exploited to identify buried objects. The experiment was set up by constructing a large box filled with sand where an L-shaped metallic sheet was buried. The GPR was installed along with a 2-dimensional scanner above the box to image and identify the buried metallic sheet. In order to investigate the effect of the clutter on the performance of the GPR-based microwave imaging and target identification, small rocks were arranged on the sand surface, and their density was then varied. The experimental results have shown that clutter density significantly affects the sharpness of the B-scan and 3D images. The rocks result in an additional surface layer in the images. Moreover, the results have also shown that the clutter does not affect the performance of the identification of the buried object. From the results, the poles obtained from the GPR scanning inside and outside the buried object region differed. This confirms that the poles of the buried object should be different from those without the object. The poles of the buried object remain constant, although rocks on the sand surface exist since the clutter affects only the early-time response (not the late-time response). With varying clutter densities, the underlying poles were significantly changed, but this does not affect the identification of the buried object.

PHYSICAL CONDITION TEST OF TRAIL RUNNING ATHLETES IN CENTRAL SULAWESI PROVINCE 2023 PRAPON PREPARATION

Trail running sports are carried out in the mountains or outdoors which have tracks in the form of paths, in the form of earthen stones or mixed with sand and small rocks. Indonesia, especially the Province of Central Sulawesi, has adequate facilities to develop a type of trail running sport. The purpose of this study was to find out how good the physical condition of the trail running athletes in Central Sulawesi Province was in preparation for the 2023 PrePON. The sample in this study was 15 trail running athletes in Central Sulawesi Province. Data collection techniques using tests and measurements. The instruments used in measuring physical conditions in this study were 1) speed (30m run), 2) strength (leg dynamometer), 3) strength (push dynamometer), 4) explosive power (vertical jump), 5) flexibility (sit and reaches), 6) Agility (4x10m shuttle run) 7) Endurance (1600m run). The results showed that there were 0 athletes or 0% in the Very Good category, there were 8 athletes or 53.3% in the Good category, there were 7 or 46.7% in the Moderate category, there were 0 athletes or 0% in the Poor category and there were 0 athletes or 0% in the Less Once category. So it can be concluded that the physical condition of the trail running athletes in Central Sulawesi Province is in the Good category

Cool shade and not-so-cool shade: How habitat loss may accelerate thermal stress under current and future climate.

Worldwide habitat loss, land-use changes, and climate change threaten biodiversity, and we urgently need models that predict the combined impacts of these threats on organisms. Current models, however, overlook microhabitat diversity within landscapes and so do not accurately inform conservation efforts, particularly for ectotherms. Here, we built and field-parameterized a model to examine the effects of habitat loss and climate change on activity and microhabitat selection by a diurnal desert lizard. Our model predicted that lizards in rock-free areas would reduce summer activity levels (e.g. foraging, basking) and that future warming will gradually decrease summer activity in rocky areas, as even large rocks become thermally stressful. Warmer winters will enable more activity but will require bushes and small rocks as shade retreats. Hence, microhabitats that may seem unimportant today will become important under climate change. Modelling frameworks should consider the microhabitat requirements of organisms to improve conservation outcomes.

Provenance Interpretation and Petrological Characteristics of the Four Lion Three-story Stone Pagoda and Stone Lantern in Hwaeomsa Temple, Korea

In this study, the lithological characteristics of the Four Lion Three-story Stone Pagoda and Stone Lantern in Hwaeomsa temple were analyzed, and the origin was interpreted. The stone properties composing the stone pagoda and the lantern are dark gray medium to coarse grained granodiorite with small to large mafic microgranular enclaves (MME), and show a fairly heterogeneous lithology. The stone properties constituting the main stone cultural heritages in the precincts of the temple use the same granodiorite as the stone pagoda and lantern. Magnetic susceptibilities of the stones ranged from 2.03 to 19.40 (mean 11.59)×10-3 SI unit, and the stones showed an almost identical distribution. The same granodiorites as the stone properties are exposed as a small intrusive rocks in the valley of Hwaeomsa temple, Toji-myeon and Gwangui-myeon area. As a result of comparing the lithological characteristics, magnetic susceptibility and geochemical behavior, it was confirmed that the rocks are identical to very similar rocks used in the stone cultural heritages of the temple. Also, many ancient quarrying traces are found in the outcrops of granodiorite, indicating that this was a place where stone quarried. Therefore, the grandiorite can be used as a substitution stones that may be needed in the repa ir process of the stone pa goda a nd stone la ntern.

The art of hiding in plain sight

At first glance, the focal object in both underwater photographs may appear to be a rock, but look closely: can you see an octopus's eye? And in the left image, a crab's leg hidden between its arms? Having just captured a crab, this common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) now searches for a safe location to enjoy its lunch. But there's a problem: in the immediate vicinity, there are no places to hide. In the blink of an eye, the octopus adopts a spherical shape and changes its skin pattern to mimic nearby benthic objects such as small rocks. Using its ventral arms and bipedal locomotion, the octopus then stealthily leaves the scene (see also https://bit.ly/3XITzTq). Known as the “moving rock” strategy (Biol J Linn Soc 1999; doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.1999.tb01914.x), this innate behavior was initially observed in Octopus cyanea specimens weighing between 300 and 700 g that traversed slowly by “tiptoeing” on their eight arm tips. In O vulgaris, the bipedal version of this behavior is first exhibited in young juveniles weighing less than 1 g, peaks in individuals between 1 and 100 g, and is rarely performed by those above 100 g. The tactic is likely restricted to juveniles because their lighter body mass maintains higher dynamic stability during bipedal locomotion (Science 2005; doi.org/10.1126/science.1109616; Mar Biodivers 2020; doi.org/10.1007/s12526-020-01112-5).

Thermophysical Properties of Lunar Irregular Mare Patches From LRO Diviner Radiometer Data

AbstractIrregular mare patches (IMPs) are enigmatic features in the lunar maria that are characterized as having smooth mounds surrounded by uneven or blocky terrain. The IMPs appear anomalously young compared to surrounding maria, with crater counting methods estimating IMPs to be &lt;100 Myr old and established measures of maturity showing that IMPs are relatively immature. Some studies propose that IMPs are the result of recent basaltic volcanism or episodic outgassing of volatiles, while others propose that the IMPs are of a similar age to the surrounding maria and appear geologically young due to unique physical properties resulting from late‐stage eruption dynamics. Here we present observations from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment for eight of the largest IMPs. We find that IMPs are slightly rockier than typical mare surfaces, and the fines components of a number of IMPs have relatively low thermal inertia. The IMP Ina has noticeably lower thermal inertia than the other IMPs. We suggest that the other IMPs (which in many cases are smaller and have ambiguous or gradational contacts with the surrounding maria) could contain similarly low thermal inertia material as Ina, but that it is not fully resolvable with Diviner. We interpret lower‐thermal inertia material as being less‐consolidated or containing fewer small rocks than typical regolith. This would be consistent with elements of a number of proposed formation hypotheses; however, higher spatial resolution is needed for a full comparison of the thermophysical properties of the different IMPs and different terrains within each IMP.

The Iberian-Tartessian semi-syllabary: possible evolution from Lineal Megalithic/Paleolithic Scripts and the Mother Goddess Religion

Paleolithic/Neolithic (Megalithic) Lineal Scripts have been found in big or small rocks with or without megalithic context. Huelva (South West Spain) megalithic rocks presented engraved signs apparently contained in the Iberian-Tartessian semi-syllabary and this region is in the core of Tartessian civilization. Iberian-Tartessian scripts have been found in South West Algeria, Canary Islands and Iberia. The genesis of this type of writing may have more ancient roots than established (1st Century BC) as Strabo stated that it may be thousands of years older. The finding of the same Iberian-Tartessian signs within such a big geographic area supports that demic diffusion substitution either from East Mediterranean or Russian steppes is not found in Iberia according to physical anthropology traits and also genetic studies from different research groups from different countries: Iberians, North Africans and Canary Islanders are genetically close supporting prehistorical contacts also sustained by Sahara Desert rapid desiccation followed by people migration. On the other hand, it is difficult to understand Paleolithic /Neolithic-Megalithic Lineal rock inscriptions continuity in such a long period without a known language, considered identical or related to Iberian, or political unit unless Basque language, or similar one, was present in Paleolithic time, as suggested by some authors. Paleolithic Lineal scripts have also been found in Java (Indonesia) and South Africa. It is feasible that worldwide Mother Goddess religion which extended since Paleolithic to Neolithic/Megalithic times may be the one common certain and documented character available to blame of such a surprising unity and continuity of rock lineal engravings.

Influence of landscape moisture sources and topography on rock weathering patterns associated with wildfire

AbstractFrom 9 March 2015, a wildfire burned an area of 25.7 km2, or approximately half of the Jonkershoek catchment (Western Cape, South Africa), over the course of 3 days. During this period, large areas of fynbos and commercial forest plantations were razed, and rocks, including boulders and smaller rocks, were exposed to high temperatures. While a substantial body of work has been carried out to investigate the effects of wildfire on landscape development, less is known about the effect of wildfire on rock weathering within a landscape. Previous studies have reported the overall effect of wildfire on rock deterioration, but the effect of intra‐fire temperature differences associated with heat behaviour on a slope has not been sufficiently addressed. In this study we investigate the effects of topography and proximity to moisture on rock deterioration processes. In particular, we focus on the use of in‐field rock deterioration measurements and GIS to investigate the relative influences of distance from burn source, distance from moisture source and topographical positioning of the sample site. The results indicate that boulder size and lithology are of secondary importance to the placement of fire‐affected rocks within the wider topography of the landscape, and that rock exposure to moisture, also a function of landscape position, is likely to exacerbate the response of the rocks to heat. No direct correlation was observed between the type and severity of the outwardly visible damage sustained on the sampled rocks, and the size, lithology or proximity to burn source. We argue that these findings call for a re‐evaluation of fire‐related damage in the wider context of rock response as a function of topographical variations.

Preliminary account on the bryozoans of the Alboran platform (Western Mediterranean), with description of two new species.

The Alboran platform, located in the Alboran Sea, is an area of high productivity due to the mixture of the Atlantic and Mediterranean waters, which produce an almost permanent upwelling in the region. It has been considered one of the main biodiversity hotspots in the Mediterranean Sea. Previous taxonomic studies on bryozoans carried out around the Alboran platform mentioned a total of 127 species collected at depths between 28 and 480 m. Here we report on four Indemares (Inventario y designacin de la Red Natura 2000 en reas marinas del Estado espaol) samples collected in 2011 and 2012 at depths between 95 and 120 m from a biogenic gravel bottom (i.e. small rocks and shells). Sixty-eight taxa belonging to 52 genera and 34 families were identified. Two species are proposed as new (Escharella similis n. sp. and Hemicyclopora admirabilis n. sp.), eight taxa were identified only to genus level although two of them (Chorizopora sp., Hippothoa sp.) are likely to be undescribed species, and one taxon only at family level. Among the species identified, 30 are new records for the Alboran platform, 13 are new records for the Alboran Sea, and Microporella funbio is recorded for the first time in the Mediterranean Sea. These results covered only a small part of the material sampled (4 out of 44 samples), which suggests that the number of bryozoan species in the Alboran platform is even higher, and also shows the importance of this area for bryodiversity.

Degradation at theInSightLanding Site,Homestead Hollow, Mars: Constraints From Rock Heights and Shapes

AbstractRock shapes and heights around theInSightlander are examined to refine the degradation history of the 27 m‐diameterHomestead hollow. Results document decreasing average exposed rock height and increasing percentage of rocks where height comprises the short axis from outside to within the hollow and support prior models of ejecta deflation accompanied by hollow infilling. We estimate 0.3 m of deflation at the current rim that is realistic compared to rock relief, original ejecta thickness, and predicted aeolian contributions to infilling. We also find that shapes of embayed basalt rocks outside the hollow appear platy, bladed, and elongate in a triangular form factor plot, and more discoidal and bladed in an axes ratio plot. By contrast, expected shapes based on terrestrial studies of basalt rocks are mostly compact, compact platy, compact bladed, compact elongated, platy, bladed, and elongate in triangular form factor plots, and equant with lesser, but significant disc‐ and blade‐shaped rocks in axes ratio plots. We find addition of 10 cm to the heights of rocks near the hollow rim, to account for continued partial embedding in ejecta, yields the best match between observed and expected rock shapes. Exposure of small ejecta rocks in the hollow supports degradation rates of 10−4 m/Myr during most of hollow history. Results indicate that deflation from ejecta accompanied by downwind deposition in the hollow can account for the current degraded form of the crater. Our approach is a new tool for characterizing small crater degradation on regolith‐covered lava plains on Mars.

Development and Subsea Testing of Polymetallic Nodule Crusher for Underwater Mining Machine

Abstract Polymetallic nodules found in the deep oceans are viewed as potential resources for meeting the world's demand of many metals in the near future. Polymetallic nodule mining systems require subsea crushing systems for reducing the size of nodules to facilitate energy-efficient and safe pumping through risers of optimum size. Polymetallic nodules are friable, and deep-sea crushing has to be done with care to minimize the formation of fines, while obtaining the required size reduction. The crusher could also encounter objects with greater hardness during operation like small rocks, splinters, long fish bones, and shark teeth. All components in the crusher should be capable of operating in the deep ocean environment, which is hyperbaric and sediment laden. The equipment should be compact with minimum weight. Reversal of direction and dumping arrangements in the event of stalling are other essential design requirements. An underwater crusher capable of crushing mined nodules from a maximum size of 100 mm to a crushed size of 30 mm was developed using principles of design synthesis. The crusher was tested in land and integrated into a remotely operated crawler-based underwater mining machine that could mine and pump nodules through a flexible riser. The system was tested using artificial nodules at 512-m water depth off the Malvan coast in the Arabian Sea. This paper describes developmental methodology, land-based performance tests, and sea trials conducted on the developed crusher.

Lineal Megalithic Rock Scripts as precursors of Iberian and other lineal Mediterranean/Euro African ancient writings: the case of Fuerteventura (Canary Islands, Spain)

Lineal Megalithic/Paleolithic Lineal signs/lines may have a variety of purposes or representations. Some authors have proposed they represent sky, planets and stars and their movements, space/time representations or others, including letters/syllables or symbols/events. Some are painted, other incised; the latter are relatively more common in Megalithic scripts. Man is “writing” or creating handmade figures on stones /rocks and other supports, which sometimes have intentionally been polished since Paleolithic times: at least 70,000 years BP (Blombos Cave, South Africa). Megalithic script is named because it is associated to megalithic structures, although not exclusively. Von Petzinger 40,000 years old “symbols” and/or writing are extended worldwide in Paleolithic caves and other rocks. Man connection was worldwide in Paleolithic times. Canary Islands incise or picketed lineal writing exists with a transcribed and translated meaning collection of signs (Ibero-Guanche or Latin inscriptions and Lybic ones). Also, other African/European/Mediterranean lineal scripts there exist and examples are given in the present paper. Fuerteventura Island contains in addition many small or bigger stones and rocks with these Paleolithic/Megalithic incised lines all over its territory. About timing in which these stones that were incised by man, we are only referring to a kind of stone crafting. However, we do not discard that they were made by man several thousand years BP. Some Paleolithic/Megalithic scripts are mixed with clear Iberian semi-syllabary signs in Fuerteventura and other Canary Islands. They may reflect the evolution of more ancient Megalithic scripts to lineal writings like those detailed in the present paper and others. Finally, writing concept should be redefined whenever more precise data and dating be available.

Outer limits of the continental shelf beyond CLCS recommendations and Article 76(8) of UNCLOS: With reference to Japan’s Cabinet Order No. 302

AbstractIn 2014 Japan’s Cabinet Order No. 302 declared the outer limits of its continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles (OL) to the west and north of Oki-no-Tori Shima (Area 302). Oki-no-Tori Shima consists of two small, barren, and uninhabitable rocks in the West Pacific. The northern part of Area 302 is broader than what the 2012 recommendations of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) specify. A question arises whether Order No. 302 violates Article 76(8) of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which provides that the OL established by a coastal state ‘on the basis of’ the CLCS recommendations shall be final and binding. Another question is the role played by the CLCS in ‘assisting’ the coastal states to delimit their national jurisdiction so as to know where the Area (i.e., the Common Heritage of Mankind under UNCLOS Articles 1(1)(1) and 136) begins. The essential questions arising from Area 302 concern how well the UNCLOS mechanism can perform to safeguard the Common Heritage of Mankind through preventing encroachment thereupon by individual coastal states. This article looks at the context and explores the obligations implied by Article 76(8) for coastal states to ‘follow’ the recommendations in establishing the OL, with special reference to the northern part of Area 302. The article also examines legal consequences arising from a breach of these obligations.

Millimeter‐ to Decimeter‐Scale Surface Roughness of the Moon at the Chang'e‐4 Exploration Region

AbstractThe surface slope and roughness of the Moon have been investigated extensively over a wide baseline range except millimeter to decimeter scales. In this study, we present for the first time millimeter‐to decimeter‐scale surface slope and roughness of the Moon at China's Chang'e‐4 landing regions (∼20 m across) using the Digital Terrain Model (DTM) with a resolution of 5 mm/pixel. The bidirectional slope at the 7 mm scale can be larger than 40° with a median value of ∼10°. The root‐mean‐square (RMS) height within a window size of 125 mm varies from ∼1 mm to ∼18 mm with a median value of ∼4 mm. Both the bidirectional slope and RMS height show scale‐dependent behaviors and the parameter of scale dependence, the Hurst exponent, is ∼0.6–0.85. We also synthesized the bidirectional slope at baseline from micrometer to kilometer, showing that bidirectional slope decreases from ∼60° at micrometer to ∼1° at a kilometer. At millimeter‐scale, surface roughness is mainly controlled by small impact craters, rocks, and regolith properties. Our roughness results not only bridge the gap in understanding surface roughness from traditional topographic data sets to radar and thermal observations, but also provide valuable information about lunar regolith characteristics, and small‐scale geological processes.

Comparative ecomorphology of the sandstone night lizard (Xantusia gracilis) and the granite night lizard (Xantusia henshawi)

Abstract It is hypothesized that shape differences between the closely related sandstone night lizard (Xantusia gracilis) and the granite night lizard (X. henshawi) may be correlated with structual differences in their respective microhabitats. Multivariate and univariate analyses of 22 morphometric characters taken from the head, body, and limbs of both saxicolus specialists recovered statistically significant differences between them with X. gracilis having a wider head, longer snout, larger eyes, wider sternum, higher and wider pelvis, thinner limbs, longer forearms and thighs, and longer hind limbs. Many of these same proportional differences have been reported among very closely related saxicolus species in other lizard families (i.e. Eublepharidae, Gekkonidae, Phrynosomatidae) that also live on different rocky substrates. This supports the inference that morphometric differences between X. gracilis and X. henshawi are ecomorphological adaptations for navigating the substantially different substrates of their respective microhabitats. Xantusia gracilis is restricted to a loose, heterogeneous, sandstone microhabitat composed of large boulders, small rocks, and cliff faces where cracks, crevices, holes, and exfoliations are used as retreats versus the compact, more homogeneous, granite boulder microhabitat of X. henshawi where narrow spaces beneath exfoliations and cap-rocks are the preferred retreats.