Small Protected Areas Research Articles

Need of transboundary collaborations for tiger survival in Indian subcontinent

Tiger is an integral part of much of the remaining forest ecosystems in Indian subcontinent, which in turn provide ecological services essential to our own existence. Progressively shrinking and denuding forests are effectively trapping tigers in unsustainably small protected areas in Indian subcontinent, with obvious fatal consequences. Tigers need large undisturbed landscapes with ample prey to raise young ones and maintain long-term genetic and demographic viability. The subcontinent is reported to be the last haven for tigers with more than 60 % of the global population. However, large tracts of biodiversity-rich forests straddle two or more countries in the subcontinent and need holistic, concerted approaches to conservation over-riding political boundaries. The looming extinction crisis and urgency to protect these areas cannot be overemphasized.

Struggling to maintain native plant diversity in a peri-urban reserve surrounded by a highly anthropogenic matrix

High human density and land use intensity often coincide with biodiversity hotspots making peri-urban reserves a keystone for conserving natural remnants in a highly anthropogenic matrix. Particularly, intense propagule pressure by alien plant species can pose a threat to native biodiversity. However, little is known about the factors that determine invasibility and the role of roads and other human disturbances for such small protected areas. Within a peri-urban reserve close to the city of Concepcion, south-central Chile, we investigated the influence of different site and landscape characteristics on the richness of native and alien plant species across different habitat (ruderal, road and forest sites) and forest types (native and alien dominated forests). Compared to other protected areas, alien species were frequently found in this reserve indicating the importance of urban areas as source for alien species. Aliens concentrate around disturbed ruderal and road sites, facilitating their spread into the reserve. Natural forest areas are less invaded until now. Within forests alien plant species richness was, however, positively associated to the proximity to disturbed landscapes. Forests dominated by alien tree species within the reserve are not the source for alien species within natural forests, but they negatively affect native species richness by replacing adequate seed sources. In order to prevent a further spread of alien species into peri-urban reserves, large scale anthropogenic disturbances should be minimized, already invaded sites must be monitored and buffer-zones protecting reserves from surrounding land use activities should be established.

A checklist of the reptiles and amphibians found in protected areas along the South African Wild Coast, with notes on conservation implications

We surveyed six protected areas along the Wild Coast of the Eastern Cape, South Africa, to determine general herpetofaunal diversity as well as the representation of species of special conservation concern. Visual encounter survey methods and standard Y-shape trap arrays were used to conduct surveys from 2011 to 2013. A total of 59 species (22 amphibians and 37 reptiles) were recorded. A number of previously unknown populations of threatened species and one potential novel species were discovered in these protected areas, and the known ranges of several other species were extended. A total of 243 quarter-degree grid-cell unit records were documented, of which 90 (23% amphibians and 50% reptiles) represented the first records for the area. Amphibian and reptile diversity increased along the coast and a number of species of conservation concern were well represented in current protected areas. Our study provides a comprehensive amphibian and reptile checklist for an under-sampled region and highlights the importance of baseline data for improving conservation management.Conservation implications: Small protected areas play an important role in conserving a number of threatened herpetofaunal species along the Wild Coast. The region is currently under significant and increasing pressure from anthropogenic-induced environmental degradation, which affects biodiversity and subsequently the local inhabitants. The information presented here represents an important baseline for future conservation management.

Challenges of small protected areas in urban cities: a case study of Okhla Bird Sanctuary, India

Protected areas have been earmarked throughout the world for the purpose of conserving the biodiversity. The protected areas are facing serious threats due to rapid urban growth, especially in the developing countries like India. The current threats and impacts of urbanization on the Okhla Bird Sanctuary (Delhi, India) have been presented in this paper as a case in point. Uncontrolled urbanization and the lack of policy implementation have been identified as one of the major contributors to incessant biodiversity loss in India and other countries. In addition, a possible management framework for a smaller protected area in an urban setting is presented in brief.

A gap analysis of tree species representation in the protected areas of the Canadian boreal forest: applying a new assemblage of digital Forest Resource Inventory data

We undertook a gap analysis of how protected areas represent the tree-species diversity within the Canadian boreal forest, as measured from Forest Resource Inventory (FRI) maps. We used a new compilation of Forest Resource Inventory designed to support ecological analyses over large areas and across jurisdictional boundaries. The analysis was stratified into four analytical regions determined by terrestrial ecozones. We calculated the relative abundance of species within regions, developed rarity criteria, and evaluated the relative abundances and prevalence of rare species. We characterized representation gaps when the abundance of a tree species in protected areas within an analytical region differed markedly (by more than a factor of 2) from the expectation, calculated as the product of regional abundance and the proportional area protected. Most species were well represented in the most species-diverse region (n = 33), the Boreal Shield in eastern Canada, due apparently to a large number of relatively small protected areas in the southern part of the region. Some marked gaps existed in the more species-depauperate western zones, notably for montane conifers in the Boreal Plains. As is common for species abundance distributions, as few as five species accounted for 90% of total abundance in each zone. Relatively rare species were more numerous. Mostly associated with southern temperate or hemiboreal forests, these reached their highest prevalence and abundance in the managed forests of the Boreal Shield. Our work identified some gaps in representation in the protected areas network of Canada in western Canada, substantiates the use of species distribution mapping based on FRI data to inform conservation planning — including the identification of high conservation biodiversity elements for forest certification — and demonstrates the need for improved vegetation mapping in National Parks.

The Megophthalmidia (Diptera, Mycetophilidae) of North America including eight new species

Megophthalmidia Dziedzicki is a small leiine genus (Mycetophilidae) with seven species described from the Neotropics and ten species from the Palearctic region. Two species of Megophthalmidia have been reported for North America. Recent collecting of Mycetophilidae in California and Arizona, however, shows current North American diversity of Megophthalmidia is at least on par to other regions of the world. Eight new species of Megophthalmidia are described here, increasing the number of Nearctic Megophthalmidia species to nine. Included is a particularly atypical member of the genus, M. saskia sp. n., which expands the genus concept of Megophthalmidia. Of the two species previously recorded for North America, only one actually belongs in the genus. Megophthalmidia occidentalis Johannsen, is fully described and illustrated. The other named species, M. marceda (Sherman) is illustrated and transferred to the genus Ectrepesthoneura Enderlein. A lectotype is designated for this species. A key to the species of Megophthalmidia of North America is provided. The biology of these flies is not yet known. Three of the new Megophthalmidia species – M. lenimenta, M. misericordia, and M. radiata – are only known to occur within small protected areas within the California State Park and UC Natural Reserve systems.

Prioritizing conservation of tropical dry forests in the Pacific

AbstractTo identify forests of high priority for conservation in tropical dry forests of New Caledonia, Fiji, the Marquesas and Hawaii, we examined patterns of woody plant species richness (total, native and endemic) and threatened species (IUCN categorization and density) at the stand level, using Gentry's transect method. There were associations between total, native and endemic plant species richness in all four Pacific dry forest regions but we found no significant association with the presence or density of species listed on the IUCN Red List. Dry forests in New Caledonia and Hawaii merit the highest conservation priority in the Pacific, based on level of endemism and number of threatened species. The study sites that merit high conservation priority are Metzdorf, Nekoro and Pindai, in New Caledonia, Kokee and Kaupulehu, in Hawaii, and Vatia, in Fiji. New Caledonia and Fiji have a small dry forest extent and protected area extent compared with other dry forests in biodiversity hotspots. Although we identified priority areas for dry forest conservation, more comparative plot data, presence/absence data in fragments and regional geographical data are needed to adequately manage and protect dry forests in the Pacific.

Diversity of medium and large sized mammals in a Cerrado fragment of central Brazil

Studies related to community ecology of medium and large mammals represent a priority in developing strategies for conservation of their habitats. Due to the significant ecological importance of these species, a concern in relation to anthropogenic pressures arises since their populations are vulnerable to hunting and fragmentation. In this study, we aimed to analyze the diversity of medium and large mammals in a representative area of the Cerrado biome, located in the National Forest of Silvânia, central Brazil, providing insights for future studies on the biodiversity and conservation of Cerrado mammals. Sampling was carried out by linear transects, search for traces, footprint traps and camera traps. We recorded 23 species, among which three are listed in threat categories (e.g., Myrmecophaga tridactyla, Chrysocyon brachyurus and Leopardus tigrinus). We registered 160 records in the study area, where the most frequently recorded species were Didelphis albiventris (30 records) and Cerdocyon thous (28 records). Our results indicated that a small protected area of Cerrado can include a large and important percentage of the diversity of mammals in this biome, providing information about richness, abundance, spatial distribution and insights for future studies on the biodiversity and conservation of these biological communities.

Selection of habitat by the jaguar, Panthera onca (Carnivora: Felidae), in the upper Paraná River, Brazil

We used data from VHF and GPS radio-tagged jaguars, Panthera onca (Linnaeus, 1758) to quantify jaguar habitat selection and how adult individuals in the Upper Parana River region selected among the available habitat types. We followed the framework in which animals make decisions about resource use at hierarchical stages, namely selection of home range within a study area (second-order selection) and selection of patches within a home range (third-order selection). We quantified habitat preferences at two orders of selection with respect to habitat types and to test the null hypothesis that habitat utilization by jaguars was random at both study sites. Using compositional analysis, we assessed habitat selection by jaguars at second- and third-orders of selection. Jaguars consistently preferred dense marshes and primary forests, and avoided human-dominated areas such as intensively managed open pastures. Although the avoidance of disturbed and developed habitat types by jaguars is not surprising, this is the first study to document it. If small protected areas, such as the ones already existing in the Upper Parana region, are to sustain jaguar populations they, must include and protect as many primary forests and marshlands as possible, so that jaguars can disperse, hunt wild prey and take care of their cubs without being disturbed. What is urgently needed in these jaguar-protected areas is the creation of larger protected areas that can sustain jaguars in their favored habitat.

Livestock depredation and mitigation methods practised by resident and nomadic pastoralists around Waza National Park, Cameroon

AbstractConflict between humans and lions Panthera leo is a key factor driving population declines of lions in Africa, especially in communal lands and on the edges of small protected areas. We assessed this conflict in Waza National Park, Cameroon, in 2008 through an interview survey. A total of 207 resident and 174 nomadic pastoralists were interviewed. Results indicated high levels of livestock depredation around the Park, with attacks occurring most often at night. Lions were economically a substantial threat accounting for total losses of EUR 100,000 per annum. Per household, resident pastoralists lost one cow and nomadic pastoralists two cows per annum, equating to c. EUR 260 and 520, respectively. To mitigate these losses resident pastoralists used enclosures for nocturnal protection of their livestock more than nomadic pastoralists, who tended to herd livestock more during pasture. Improved mitigation methods pertaining to herding practice, the use of enclosures and the presence of dogs resulted in a reduction of 25% livestock depredation and 50% cattle depredation. These methods could be further improved, however, education and awareness about the ranging behaviour of lions during different seasons and periods of the day is important for all pastoralists. Additionally, park management needs to be improved through effective law enforcement.

Long-term stability of grazing lawns in a small protected area, the Mountain Zebra National Park

We examined a heavily grazed plant community dominated by creeping grass species with the aim of, (1) determining its response to the exclusion of grazing and (2) its long-term persistence. This plant community was particularly favoured by wild ungulate species that prefer short grasses – blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi), springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) and black wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou). Exclusion of grazing by large herbivores by means of fencing resulted in the virtual disappearance of the creeping grasses and their replacement by tall tufted species. On plots that remained unfenced, the plant species composition was found to be little changed after an interval of more than 20 years. The number large stock unit equivalents (LSU) per ha carried by the plant community was used as a proxy for grazing intensity. Monitored for approximately 2 years at the start of the study, LSU per ha was found to greatly exceed levels recommended for commercial livestock production. This plant community conforms to a recently published definition of a grazing lawn, in that intense grazing promotes palatable, grazing-tolerant grass species.Conservation implications: The positive association between grazers and grazing-tolerant grass species evidently persisted for more than 20 years and there was no evidence of an increase in abundance of unpalatable plant species. Despite the small size of the park, which limited the extent of large herbivore movements, localised heavy grazing did not lead to range degradation.

Opportunities for Cost-Sharing in Conservation: Variation in Volunteering Effort across Protected Areas

Efforts to expand protected area networks are limited by the costs of managing protected sites. Volunteers who donate labor to help manage protected areas can help defray these costs. However, volunteers may be willing to donate more labor to some protected areas than others. Understanding variation in volunteering effort would enable conservation organizations to account for volunteer labor in their strategic planning. We examined variation in volunteering effort across 59 small protected areas managed by Yorkshire Wildlife Trust, a regional conservation nonprofit in the United Kingdom. Three surveys of volunteering effort reveal consistent patterns of variation across protected areas. Using the most detailed of these sources, a survey of site managers, we estimate that volunteers provided 3200 days of labor per year across the 59 sites with a total value exceeding that of paid staff time spent managing the sites. The median percentage by which volunteer labor supplements management costs on the sites was 36%. Volunteering effort and paid management costs are positively correlated, after controlling for the effect of site area. We examined how well a range of characteristics of the protected areas and surrounding communities explain variation in volunteering effort. Protected areas that are larger have been protected for longer and that are located near to denser conurbations experience greater volunteering effort. Together these factors explain 38% of the observed variation in volunteering effort across protected areas.

Protected areas – protected species?

Summary Creating protected areas such as national parks and wildlife reserves sounds like an obviously good way of protecting habitats and thus species. However, conservationists have learned over time that context is important and that seemingly trivial details can save more wildlife than grand plans. Michael Gross reports.

Delivering community benefits acts as insurance for the survival of small protected areas such as the Abe Bailey Nature Reserve, South Africa

The Abe Bailey Nature Reserve (ABNR) in the Gauteng Province of South Africa is largely unknown and offers little to attract visitors. The biological integrity of the ABNR is challenged by the urban poverty in Khutsong, the reserve’s immediate neighbour. Relations between Khutsong and the nature reserve had been hostile for decades as a result of the ‘fortress’ style of conservation protection used for the ABNR. However, this situation provided the Gauteng Directorate of Nature Conservation with an opportunity to experiment with identifying and transferring benefits to the community, as well as establishing an effective buffer zone between the nature reserve and the informal settlements of Khutsong. Following an initial rapid rural appraisal and ongoing liaison through specifically appointed project managers, an outreach programme containing two natural resource-based projects was developed. As a result, better relations were established between the ABNR and its neighbouring community for the first time since the nature reserve was established in 1977. This acted as ‘insurance’ during violent public protests and vandalism in the Khutsong border demarcation dispute (2005–2007), but may not be enough to secure the nature reserve into the future. Conservation implications: Small protected areas may not be effective in ensuring their biological integrity in the long term, but working cooperatively with existing and future neighbours is an essential strategy to optimise conservation activities in small reserves such as the ABNR.

Resource selection and its implications for wide-ranging mammals of the brazilian cerrado.

Conserving animals beyond protected areas is critical because even the largest reserves may be too small to maintain viable populations for many wide-ranging species. Identification of landscape features that will promote persistence of a diverse array of species is a high priority, particularly, for protected areas that reside in regions of otherwise extensive habitat loss. This is the case for Emas National Park, a small but important protected area located in the Brazilian Cerrado, the world's most biologically diverse savanna. Emas Park is a large-mammal global conservation priority area but is too small to protect wide-ranging mammals for the long-term and conserving these populations will depend on the landscape surrounding the park. We employed novel, noninvasive methods to determine the relative importance of resources found within the park, as well as identify landscape features that promote persistence of wide-ranging mammals outside reserve borders. We used scat detection dogs to survey for five large mammals of conservation concern: giant armadillo (Priodontes maximus), giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla), maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus), jaguar (Panthera onca), and puma (Puma concolor). We estimated resource selection probability functions for each species from 1,572 scat locations and 434 giant armadillo burrow locations. Results indicate that giant armadillos and jaguars are highly selective of natural habitats, which makes both species sensitive to landscape change from agricultural development. Due to the high amount of such development outside of the Emas Park boundary, the park provides rare resource conditions that are particularly important for these two species. We also reveal that both woodland and forest vegetation remnants enable use of the agricultural landscape as a whole for maned wolves, pumas, and giant anteaters. We identify those features and their landscape compositions that should be prioritized for conservation, arguing that a multi-faceted approach is required to protect these species.

Spatial and temporal patterns in the movement of adult two-banded sea bream Diplodus vulgaris (Saint-Hilaire, 1817)

The patterns of spatial and temporal activity during the spawning season for an important recreational and commercial target species from the Mediterranean Sea and mid-east Atlantic, Diplodus vulgaris, were investigated using acoustic telemetry. No diel behavior was found in the detection pattern and the probability of detecting any tagged fish was independent of time. Individual fish spent 95% of their time in an area smaller than 1 km 2. The asymptotic value of home range (HR) was observed a few days after fish were tagged and released. There was high overlap in the areas used during the day and night, and individuals exhibited high site fidelity. The movements of D. vulgaris during the spawning season resembled random movement within a specific HR area (sedentary behavior) rather than directional movement (nomadic behavior) and daily migrations were discarded. The results provided here are useful for management and suggest that small protected areas can offer a promising approach to the sustainable development of this fishery.

Patterns of protection and threats along productivity gradients in Canada

Productivity is an important driver of broad-scale diversity gradients and community composition. Surprisingly, it is rarely used as a biodiversity proxy in protected area network assessments. In this research, we evaluate if biases exist in the locations of Canada’s protected areas with respect to productivity and assess the distribution of anthropogenic threats to protection along productivity and topographic axes. Productivity was expressed as the annual minimum and integrated fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (fPAR) and related seasonality (defined as variation in fPAR over a year), as acquired by remote sensing. Results indicate that, overall, protected areas are slightly biased to lower productivities (higher seasonalities), but are relatively unbiased along elevation. Sites at high elevations, high seasonalities, or low productivities are extremely well represented, but they account for a very small proportion of Canada’s area overall and under protection. However, the productivity characteristics of protected areas are heterogeneous across reserve characteristics and space; biases are greater and more variable when considering individual International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) categories, protected area size classes, or ecozones.The spatial and environmental correlates of anthropogenic pressures (proximity of roads and settlements in the greater park ecosystem) to protected areas in the forested ecozones were evaluated with partial linear regression models. Threats were strongly spatially structured. Reserve characteristics (productivity, elevation, size, IUCN category) shared about half of this spatial structure, explaining ∼25% of the variation in threat distributions. Small and productive protected areas tended to occur closer to human populations and roads, respectively, and are thus expected to face greater threats to biodiversity. High-elevation protected areas generally occurred farther from both roads and settlements.Systematic patterns between productivity, reserve size and management goals, and anthropogenic disturbances suggest that the most productive, biodiverse areas may not yet be sufficiently protected. These analyses highlight considerations for the management of existing parks and the expansion of Canada’s protected area network.

Plant introduction and extirpation in a small island park: Natural and anthropogenic rates

We conducted a historical (40 y) floristic assessment of a small (4 km2) park in eastern Canada (Bonaventure Island National Park, Quebec) to evaluate whether small protected areas located in rural landscapes suffer declines in vascular plant populations. We hypothesized that the limited park access (an island accessible only by boat) has a greater influence than the size of the park per se on the preservation of the integrity of the flora. The island flora just before the creation of the protected area (1971) was compared to the flora surveyed during 2 consecutive summers (2007–2008). Of the 358 taxa that were identified before 1971, only 21 (6% of the total) were not found in 2007–2008; of these 21, all but 1 were native taxa, and 17 are likely extirpated, which represents a “natural” extirpation rate of about 1 taxon every 2 or 3 y. Twenty-four taxa found in 2007–2008 were apparently not present before 1971, 14 native taxa and 10 exotic taxa. This represents an introduction rate of 1 native and 1 exotic species every 2 or 3 y. The creation of the protected area did not totally prevent the extinction of native plants or the introduction of exotic species, but the island lost very few species during recent decades, at least compared to small urban parks where historical floristic assessments have been conducted. These urban parks were visited much more frequently than the island, which probably accounts for most of the differences. Strict regulations for visiting the island are apparently an excellent tool for preventing plant introduction (or extirpation), although they are by no means a barrier against the most invasive species.

Edge creation and tree dieback influence the patch-tracking metapopulation dynamics of a red-listed epiphytic bryophyte

1. Edges in landscapes have an effect on the abundance of many species but the underlying ecological mechanisms are poorly known for most taxonomic groups. One way to gain insight into the mechanisms is to examine how key demographic or metapopulation parameters are affected by proximity to edge. The main objective of this study was to investigate the effects of edge creation through clearcutting on the dynamics of forest species’ metapopulations. 2. We used the red-listed epiphytic moss Neckera pennata as a model species. Based on data from repeated surveys of a metapopulation and its host tree network in a hemiboreal forest, we tested the effect of edge creation on key metapopulation parameters: rates of local colonization and extinction, local abundance growth and patch destruction through the fall of host trees. We predicted the long-term consequences of the edge effects using simulations with Bayesian statistical models. We also explored the potential effects of the pathogen Chalara fraxinea causing ash dieback, a tree disease currently spreading in Europe. 3. The colonization probability on host trees unoccupied by the moss increased with increasing connectivity to occupied trees. The growth of local populations on occupied trees decreased with increasing proximity to edge, and with initial local abundance. Stochastic extinctions of the epiphyte from standing trees were very rare and only occurred near the edge; most of the observed extinctions were deterministic due to tree fall. Tree fall decreased with increasing distance from the edge into the forest, and with increasing tree diameter. 4. Under edge conditions, simulations predicted decreases in the total number of host trees, number of occupied host trees, and in the total abundance of the epiphyte over a 30-year period. We suggest that ash dieback increases the tree fall rate and thereby the local extinction rate, leading to increased metapopulation extinction risk. 5. Synthesis and applications. The results show that small protected forest areas such as woodland key habitats may not allow long-term persistence of red-listed epiphytes if they are influenced by edge creation through clearcutting. Delineating uncut buffers of 50–100 m around the protected areas may alleviate such effects.

Running out of time? The great Indian bustard Ardeotis nigriceps—status, viability, and conservation strategies

The endemic great Indian bustard (GIB) is evolutionarily trapped between open nesting and k-selection that endangers its persistence under prevailing levels of habitat loss and hunting. A global population of about 300 birds is further fragmented into eight populations in the states of Rajasthan (shared with Pakistan), Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh in India. The largest population of 100–125 birds exists in Jaisalmer, Barmer, and Bikaner districts of Rajasthan. Remaining populations number less than 35 birds each. Prevalent GIB conservation strategies use legislation to (a) secure traditional breeding areas by declaring small Protected Areas (PA) or (b) protect vast areas with varied human land uses. The vagrant nature of GIB reduces the benevolent effect of small PAs, while large reserves alienate people by curbing legitimate subsistence rights through strict legislation. These factors along with ill-informed habitat management challenge the current PA approach, even causing local extinctions. Population viability analysis shows that GIB populations of ≤35 birds can persist only under unrealistic conditions of first year mortality ≤40%, and no human caused mortality of adult birds. Even the largest population (≥100 birds) is sensitive to additional loss of adult birds to human causes. With current levels of hunting in Pakistan, extinction is a real threat. A landscape conservation strategy using conservation/community reserve concept that includes controlled traditional land uses with GIB-friendly infrastructural development is needed. The declining rate of GIB populations calls for immediate commencement of ex situ conservation breeding programs.