Small Pacific Island Research Articles

Climate extremes constrain agency and long-term health: A qualitative case study in a Pacific Small Island Developing State

Vanuatu, a Pacific Small Island Developing State, has high exposure to climate extremes, such as tropical cyclones and interannual rainfall variability, which can have devastating short- and long-term impacts on food and nutrition security (FNS). This paper presents local experiences of the effects of climate extremes on FNS in Vanuatu through a case study of two recent events: Tropical Cyclone Pam (2015) and an El Niño-induced drought (2015–2017). A qualitative research approach, using a range of data collection methods, was used to document people's lived experiences in two villages in Vanuatu. This study found that climate extremes affected the FNS of people in the two study villages directly, with effects on gardens and food production, and indirectly, by exacerbating the nutrition transition, a shift away from traditional diets energy-dense imported food that is already progressing in Vanuatu. These effects undermine long-term FNS and health. Climate extremes also eroded food-related cultural practices and traditions and constrained local agency to make food choices. The magnitude and extent of these impacts, however, are influenced by structural vulnerabilities and local resiliencies. The adaptive capacity and resilience of communities needs to be strengthened in a way that allows people to exercise agency in their responses to climate extremes and to promote FNS, including cultural acceptability and food preferences, and long-term health.

Struggling against land loss: Environmental (in)justice and the geography of emerging rights

Due to anthropogenic climate change and the ongoing integration of agriculture into the world market economy, access to arable and habitable land has become an urgent issue within current transnational debates on environmental (in)justice. In particular, the emerging calls for ‘food sovereignty’ (FS) and ‘migrate with dignity’ (MWD) show how most vulnerable groups from the Global South, i.e. small-scale farmers and inhabitants of small Pacific islands, respond to deteriorating environments by claiming universal and emancipatory rights ‘from below’. These contestations show that the struggle over land is tied not only to the potential loss of physical resources but also to the struggle over cultural and political sovereignty, as well as to the emergence of post-national forms of citizenship. In drawing on ethnographic fieldwork in Bolivia and Kiribati, where these claims – FS in the former case, MWD in the latter – are currently being negotiated and fought over, this contribution aims to sketch a ‘geography of emerging rights' to make transnational politico-legal responses to environmental injustice visible and understandable. Conceptually, it draws on the assumption that, by now, environmental justice research has paid too little attention to the sphere of 'the legal', and that conversely, legal geography research has been reluctant to analyze dimensions of law and social order within deteriorating environments. This contribution thus discusses analytical entry points from legal geography, legal anthropology, and political theory in order to bring these disciplines into dialogue with empirically grounded research on movements struggling for land and sovereignty.

Adaptation to the Climate Crisis: Opportunities for Food and Nutrition Security and Health in a Pacific Small Island State

AbstractClimate change, malnutrition, and noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) are three of the most significant health challenges of this century, and they share fundamental underlying drivers. Pacific Island countries (PICs) are at the forefront of the impacts of climate change, which is likely to affect food and nutrition security (FNS) directly and indirectly, and many countries have existing high NCD burdens. This paper surveys the climate change adaptation (CCA) landscape in one PIC, Vanuatu. It explores the extent to which FNS and diet-related NCDs are considered and addressed within CCA initiatives. A comprehensive review of the literature related to CCA, FNS, and NCDs in Vanuatu was combined with 32 semistructured interviews with key experts and stakeholders. This study found that some promising groundwork has been laid for tackling the effects of climate change on FNS in policy and governance, agriculture, coastal management, and nutrition. However, several opportunities for strengthening CCA were identified: targeting urban populations; complementary integration of disaster risk reduction and CCA; incorporating local knowledge; applying a systems-based framing of NCDs as climate-sensitive health risks; and emphasizing human-centered, community-led CCA. Vanuatu will continue to be affected by accelerating climate change. A strong foundation for CCA presents clear opportunities for further development. As food and nutrition insecurity and diet-related NCD risk factors are increasingly exacerbated by climate change, alongside other socioeconomic drivers, it is crucial to find new and innovative ways to increase transformational resilience and adaptive capacity that also improve nutrition and health outcomes.

Samoan Villages and the MIRAB Model: Four case studies

In 1965-67 Brian Lockwood documented the socioeconomic circumstances of four Samoan villages (Poutasi, Uafato, Utuali’i and Taga), In this paper I present the results of studies of those four villages in 2018-2019 that show the trajectory of mainly subsistence to mainly commercial agriculture expected by Lockwood and others in the period following Samoa’s Independence in 1962 has not occurred, and suggest that the processes of change and the similarities between the case study villages may be explained with reference to the MIRAB model first articulated in 1984 by Bertram and Watters. The MIRAB model of development proposes that, the interacting characteristics of small Pacific Islands of migration (MI), remittances (R), aid (A) and state generated employment (bureaucracies ‘B’) created a “perfectly sustainable strategy” for most Pacific island countries. My research findings suggest MIRAB model can be applied to an understanding of the trajectory of village development in Samoa since the 1960s. The economies of the four villages studied rely heavily on remittances (R) from their relatives overseas (MI) and the new component of aid (A) in the form of village projects funded directly by donors for development purposes in a particular village in the form of village projects. The village councils, women’s committees, or youth groups usually implement these projects. The bureaucracy (B) component of the MIRAB (which in the literature refers to government employment) can also be understood as the provision of services to villages and rural districts by government agencies (B), such as health and educational facilities, police outposts, access roads, water and electricity supply and other infrastructure.

Seagrasses and seagrass habitats in Pacific small island developing states: Potential loss of benefits via human disturbance and climate change

Seagrasses provide a wide range of services including food provision, water purification and coastal protection. Pacific small island developing states (PSIDS) have limited natural resources, challenging economies and a need for marine science research. Seagrasses occur in eleven PSIDS and nations are likely to benefit in different ways depending on habitat health, habitat cover and location, and species presence. Globally seagrass habitats are declining as a result of anthropogenic impacts including climate change and in PSIDS pressure on already stressed coastal ecosystems, will likely threaten seagrass survival particularly close to expanding urban settlements. Improved coastal and urban planning at local, national and regional scales is needed to reduce human impacts on vulnerable coastal areas. Research is required to generate knowledge-based solutions to support effective coastal management and protection of the existing seagrass habitats, including strenghened documentation the socio-economic and environmental services they provide. For PSIDS, protection of seagrass service benefits requires six priority actions: seagrass habitat mapping, regulation of coastal and upstream development, identification of specific threats at vulnerable locations, a critique of cost-effective restoration options, research devoted to seagrass studies and more explicit policy development.

Hardin’s Mistake: Tikopia, the Society That Avoided the Tragedy of the Commons

The tragedy of the commons was repeated frequently in the past causing ecological collapse. However, catastrophe can be averted by the help of four mechanisms. We applied for the first time the tragedy of the commons model to the environmental history of Tikopia, a small Pacific island. The chances to avert the tragedy are highest when the four mechanisms are used simultaneously, and we have found that Tikopians probably did that. The question is relevant because only two mechanisms are preferred today. This may be a pivotal reason why we have been unable to solve the ecological crisis so far.

Challenges and Sensitivities in Assessing Total Ecosystem Service Values: Lessons From Vanuatu for the Pacific

Ecosystem service valuation (ESV) can inform land-use change policy and adaptation responses to climate change in Pacific Small Island Developing States. Despite Small Island Developing States communities relying acutely and directly on ecosystem service (ES) flows, methodologies must contend with limited valuation data and challenges. We undertake ESV to generate coefficients we then apply to mapped habitat extents for Vanuatu. We find the contribution of ESs to the people of Vanuatu is considerable and significantly larger than its gross domestic product. Therefore, policies that support ecologically sustainable exploitation of ESs are paramount in promoting community well-being. We also identify and discuss context-specific methodological challenges, which, if not addressed, risk distorting valuations, supporting perverse policy responses, and eroding confidence in ESV. We make recommendations to address the challenges of accounting for ecosystem condition, data gaps, and consideration of customary benefits, provide context to the interpretation of our results, and suggest where further research can ameliorate risks.

Coronavirus: COVID-19 Transmission in Pacific Small Island Developing States.

Background: Pacific Small Island Developing States (SIDS) have health care systems with a limited capacity to deal with pandemics, making them especially vulnerable to the economic and social impacts of the coronavirus (COVID-19). This paper examines the introduction, transmission, and incidence of COVID-19 into Pacific SIDS. Methods: Calculate the rate of transmission (the average number of new cases per day between the first recorded case and the most recent day) and connectivity (daily direct flights to the leading airport in each selected island group) using flight history and COVID-19 transmission data. Results: Correlational analyses show that connectivity is positively related with (a) first-case dates and (b) spread rate in Pacific SIDS. Conclusion: Connectivity plays a central role in the spread of COVID-19 in Pacific SIDS. The continued entry of people was a significant factor for spread within countries. Efforts to prevent transmission by closing borders reduced transmission but also created significant economic hardship because many Pacific SIDS rely heavily on tourism and international exchange. The findings highlight the importance of exploring the possibility that the COVID-19 spread rate may be higher than official figures indicate, and present pathways to mitigate socio-economic impacts. The practical implications of the findings reveal the vulnerability of Pacific SIDS to pandemics and the key role of connectivity in the spread of COVID-19 in the Pacific region.

An integrated combined power and cooling strategy for small islands

Small Pacific islands are highly dependent on diesel fuel imports to run diesel generators for their electricity needs. Diesel generators are less than 40% efficient and at least 60% of energy is wasted in the form of heat. A significant share of the electricity is consumed for running electric reefer containers that are employed by islanders for the conservation of imported food. This study investigates the feasibility of constructing a Cooling Service Centre (CSC) to host the reefer containers of a small island, utilizing the recovered heat from the exhaust of the diesel generators of the island’s power plant, and using Nauru as a case study. Two scenarios are considered: in the first, a cool-store hosting the reefer containers is maintained at a predetermined temperature. In the second, fixed porthole reefer containers are stacked in an open area next to the power plant. In both scenarios, absorption chillers are employed to convert the recovered heat from the generator exhausts and provide cooling. The remainder of the recovered heat is utilised for heating the inlet water of three reverse osmosis (RO) desalination units to increase the flow rate of permeate (fresh water) production. The results show that the most economically feasible scenario is a cool-store held at −20 °C, with a pay-back period of 10 years. In a business model where users of the CSC facilities pay for cooling space, the required monthly service charge per reefer container has a maximum of AU$556 for the lowest considered diesel price. This compares favourably with the current monthly electricity cost of AU$1350 that users pay to keep each reefer container running. Such a reduction in the expenses of business owners would make, at least, around a AU$440,000 annual saving in the costs of preservation of imported food and a significant reduction in its market price. Also, the annual water production of desalination units increases by 81 million litres, thus significantly alleviating potential water shortages. Besides, an annual reduction of around 1.1 kilotonnes in total carbon emission is expected to be achieved.

Revealing the dominant discourses of stakeholders towards natural resource management in Port Resolution, Vanuatu, using Q-method

Rural communities in Pacific small island states, which rely directly and acutely on the benefits from ecosystem services, face a range of interlinking threats to their management of natural resources, exacerbated by climate change-related risks, all against the backdrop of rapid social and economic transition. Appropriate and sufficient community adaptation responses are required to maintain habitats and sustain livelihoods. Adaptation responses are mediated through often competing subjective discourses. We used Q-method to reveal discourses within a subsistence community in Vanuatu and amongst associated stakeholders. We revealed three discourses, which we called Strong Kastom, Kastom + Health and Tentative Modernity. When we compared stakeholder socio-demographic attributes we found a statistically significant gender difference between membership of Strong Kastom, which was skewed towards men and Tentative Modernity, which was skewed towards women. We also found that external practitioners were weighted away from Tentative Modernity. Our results suggest ecosystem-based adaptations to climate change will likely resonate with the community if they support customary natural resource knowledge and management, and provide opportunities for generating income, and promoting gender equity in decision-making. Our results also suggest external practitioners may not consider income generation to be sufficiently important to community resilience.

Potential of Black Soldier Fly Production for Pacific Small Island Developing States.

Simple SummaryThe black soldier fly is an insect of which the larvae can eat almost any organic matter, including organic waste. The larvae are edible and can be fed to livestock, fish, or even people. Around the world, black soldier fly farms and composting facilities are being established to process waste into animal feed, with economic and environmental benefits. The Pacific Small Island Developing States stand to benefit greatly from black soldier fly farming to solve multiple problems they face, due in large part to overpopulation, urbanization, and climate change. We reviewed the pressing issues in each of these nations, how black soldier fly production could help them, and which obstacles need to be cleared to make this possible.Organic waste such as food waste and livestock manure is a serious concern in the Pacific Islands, where landfills are overflowing and illegal dumping of waste threatens the fragile ecosystems. Organic waste also attracts filth flies, some of which are vectors for pathogens that cause human disease. The black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens, has tremendous potential for the Pacific Islands. Capable of digesting almost any organic matter and converting it into insect biomass, black soldier flies are already being used around the world to process organic waste into larvae. The system can be adapted to large-scale municipal composting as well as small sizes for individual livestock farms or even urban households. The larvae can be fed live to fish or poultry, processed into feed comparable to fishmeal or soy meal, or even used to generate biofuel. Thus, the fly not only eliminates waste, but also can improve the sustainability of livestock production. The Pacific Small Island Developing States stand to benefit immensely from black soldier fly bioconversion facilities, used primarily as a means to compost organic waste; however, several knowledge gaps must first be addressed. We reviewed the state of black soldier flies in the Pacific and identified where their use shows the most promise. Research priorities for the field include fly surveys and bioconversion assays using Pacific crop waste.

Mens perception of health and health services on the Island of Niue: a qualitative study

Background Men on the small Pacific island of Niue suffer from a range of health conditions but underuse health services. This study aimed to understand why. Very little is known about how men living in Niue view health and wellbeing. Knowing more would help to target services to meet men’s needs. Methods Qualitative face to face interviews were undertaken with a convenience sample of twenty men in Niue aged between 26 and 75 years. Data were analysed using a general inductive approach to identify recurring themes. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the University of Auckland Human Participants ethics committee. Results The men interviewed had good knowledge of healthy and unhealthy behaviours. They believed that day to day activities such as working on plantations, fishing, and consuming healthy foods helped them to stay healthy and happy. They identified unhealthy diets as a major contributor to high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes and gout. Traditional medicine was commonly used by older men in preference to formal healthcare services. All of the participants had a good knowledge about the health services available in Niue, but most said that conceptions of masculinity, pride and stubbornness influenced them not to visit doctors. They found it easier to speak about health issues with professionals who were able to communicate in the Niuean language. There was a consensus that providing health promotion workshops and exercise programmes in local villages would be beneficial. Conclusions This small study did not aim to generalise to all men in Niue, but it suggests that there is scope for local communities and health services to work together to improve men’s health. The consistency of findings suggests that men in Niue know what constitutes unhealthy behaviours, but they may not feel comfortable visiting health services for support. This may be because they do not trust health services, do not think it would be ‘manly’ to visit such services or are afraid to be diagnosed with illnesses and become a ‘burden’. Positively, men are open to taking part in health promotion workshops and exercise programmes in villages, and this could help to develop more acceptance of positive health behaviours.

Establishing the Intimate Link: 20th Century Tropical Agriculture and the Establishment of the Coconut Zone

This paper examines the role of colonial science institutions in imagining and developing the Coconut Zone, an area of intense coconut production that extends from the small Pacific island chains encompassing the Caroline and the Marshall Islands, all the way to northern Papua, the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, and Southern India. Through an examination of European colonial science institutions, as well as the Philippine Bureau of Science, and Agriculture, this paper establishes the intimate connection between western consumers and tropical producers. Here, within the agricultural institutions, we are able to see the burgeoning demand for copra production and a formation of a distinct Coconut Zone. This paper builds upon Sydney Mintz’s theoretical articulation of sugar production to situate copra, the dried meat of the coconut, in conversation with other global, colonial commodities.

Performance Evaluation of Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Ensemble Models for Groundwater Salinity Predictions: a Regional-Scale Comparison Study

Accurate prediction of salinity concentration in the aquifer in response to fluctuating groundwater pumping pattern is an essential component of any coastal groundwater planning and management framework. Data-driven prediction models have been proved efficient in predicting groundwater salinity levels in coastal aquifers. The use of ensemble prediction models is known to be more accurate with robust prediction capabilities when compared with standalone prediction models. This study compares the performances of homogeneous and heterogeneous ensemble models for groundwater salinity predictions. A homogeneous ensemble model is composed of several standalone models of the same type (i.e. employs one machine learning tool) whereas a heterogeneous ensemble model is composed of several standalone models of different types (i.e. employs multiple machine learning tools). Specifically, homogeneous and heterogeneous ensemble models of various standalone machine learning tools such as artificial neural network (ANN), genetic programming (GP), support vector regression (SVR), and Gaussian process regression (GPR) are developed to predict groundwater salinity concentrations in a small Pacific island coastal aquifer system. Standalone and ensemble prediction models are trained and validated using identical pumping and resulting salinity concentration datasets obtained by solving numerical 3D transient density-dependent coastal aquifer flow and transport model. After validation, the ensemble models are used to predict salinity concentration at selected monitoring wells in the modelled aquifer under variable groundwater pumping conditions. Prediction capabilities of the developed ensemble models are quantified using standard statistical procedures. The performance evaluation result suggested that the predictive capabilities of the developed standalone prediction models (ANN, GP, SVR, and GPR) were comparable with the numerical groundwater variable density-dependent flow and salt transport model. However, GPR standalone models had better prediction capabilities when compared with the other standalone models. Also, SVR and GPR standalone models were more efficient (i.e. took less computational training time) than other standalone models. In terms of ensemble models, the performance of the homogeneous GPR ensemble model was established to be superior to other homogeneous and heterogeneous ensemble models. The homogeneous GPR ensemble model was favoured both in terms of efficiency. Overall, based on the limited performance evaluation result, GPR homogeneous model was considered to be the best prediction model when compared with all the standalone models, other homogeneous ensemble model, and the heterogeneous ensemble model. Therefore, it can be utilised as a reliable groundwater salinity prediction tool and also used as an approximate simulator in coupled simulation-optimization models needed for prescribing optimal groundwater management strategies.

Nonpharmaceutical Measures for Pandemic Influenza in Nonhealthcare Settings-International Travel-Related Measures.

International travel–related nonpharmaceutical interventions (NPIs), which can include traveler screening, travel restrictions, and border closures, often are included in national influenza pandemic preparedness plans. We performed systematic reviews to identify evidence for their effectiveness. We found 15 studies in total. Some studies reported that NPIs could delay the introduction of influenza virus. However, no available evidence indicated that screening of inbound travelers would have a substantial effect on preventing spread of pandemic influenza, and no studies examining exit screening were found. Some studies reported that travel restrictions could delay the start of local transmission and slow international spread, and 1 study indicated that small Pacific islands were able to prevent importation of pandemic influenza during 1918–19 through complete border closure. This limited evidence base indicates that international travel-related NPIs would have limited effectiveness in controlling pandemic influenza and that these measures require considerable resources to implement.

Financial development, natural disasters, and economics of the Pacific small island states

Natural disasters have become more frequent and devastating as a result of global climate change in recent years. The economic impacts of natural disasters are significant and more relevant to small island states, given their location and size of economy. This paper studies Pacific small island states and investigates how natural disasters affect sustainable development in these states, with a highlight on the role of financial development in alleviating the negative impacts of natural disasters on the local economic growth. We empirically estimate the direct and indirect roles of financial development on these states and explicitly distinguish the economic effects from a battery of measures of financial development. A more important role played by internal financing factors than by external financing sources is found, which suggest that enhancing internal financing capabilities can help these states better use financial resources and build disaster resilience more effectively. Relevant policy suggestions are proposed based on these findings.

Defending Democracy: Taking Stock of the Global Fight Against Digital Repression, Disinformation, and Election Insecurity

Amidst the regular drumbeat of reports about Russian attempts to undermine U.S. democratic institutions from Twitter bots to cyber-attacks on Congressional candidates, it is easy to forget that the problem of election security is not isolated to the United States and extends far beyond safeguarding insecure voting machines. Consider Australia, which has long been grappling with repeated Chinese attempts to interfere with its political system. Yet Australia has taken a distinct approach in how it has sought to protect its democratic institutions, including reclassifying its political parties as “critical infrastructure,” a step that the U.S. government has yet to take despite repeated breaches at both the Democratic and Republican National Committees. This Article analyzes the Australian approach to protecting its democratic institutions from Chinese influence operations and compares it to the U.S. response to Russian efforts. It then moves on to discuss how other cyber powers, including the European Union, have taken on the fight against digital repression and disinformation, and then compares these practices to the particular vulnerabilities of Small Pacific Island Nations. Such a comparative study is vital to help build resilience, and trust, in democratic systems on both sides of the Pacific. We argue that a multifaceted approach is needed to build more resilient and sustainable democratic systems. This should encompass both targeted reforms focusing on election infrastructure security — such as requiring paper ballots and risk-limiting audits — with deeper structural interventions to limit the spread of misinformation and combat digital repression.

Enabling authoritarianism in the Indo-Pacific: Australian exemptionalism

ABSTRACTIn recent white papers, Australia has identified rising authoritarianism in the region as a key challenge to its regional security interests. Foreign policy discourses highlight Australia’s normative commitment to global democracy, and Australia engages in a range of democratic promotion activities. Democracy promotion by Western states has come under scrutiny by analysts of different ideological persuasions. Critics have framed American ‘exceptionalism’ as really meaning ‘exemptionalism’, referring to its capacities to create exceptions for itself and its own conduct on the global stage, particularly regarding democracy and human rights. This paper argues that this exemptionalism is not limited to the United States: Australia also engages in practices that have undermined its democracy promotion principles. In some cases, Australia’s policies have enabled authoritarianism to flourish unchecked. This paper uses Australia’s refugee policy and its effect on the small Pacific Island state of Nauru as a case study. It highlights how the securitisation of asylum seekers for electoral purposes has contributed to Australia carving out an exception for itself in both adherence to international refugee law and the promotion of democracy. It finds that formal democratic processes within Australia have produced undemocratic outcomes in foreign policy.

Presence of microplastics in water, sediments and fish species in an urban coastal environment of Fiji, a Pacific small island developing state

Microplastics (MP) in the marine environment are widely reported. However, MP occurrence in some geographical areas such as from Small Island Developing States (SIDS) is missing. The main aim of this study was to assess MP levels in the urban coastal environment of Suva, the capital of the Republic of Fiji. Microplastics were measured from surface water, sediments and fish gastrointestinal tracts (GI) from three sites adjacent to Suva. In addition, an evaluation on the contribution from the local sewage treatment plant to MP levels was undertaken. In general, low levels of MP in water and sediments were detected, but significant differences were observed among sites. The sewage treatment plant was shown to contribute to MP levels in sediment but not in water. Species ingestion of MP was high and associated with MP in sediments. Fibres and fragments were the predominant type of MP, and fifteen different polymers were detected, with higher percentages of polyethylene, latex and polypropylene. In conclusion, MP were found in Suva coastal environment and these MP were associated to land based human activities.

Imagining the Future of Social and Environmental Accounting Research for Pacific Small Island Developing States

ABSTRACTIn this paper, I contribute to the conversation of imagining the future of Social and Environmental Accounting (SEA) research for Pacific Small Island Developing States (PSIDS). I focus on PSIDS as this region is arguably the most disadvantaged region given its low economic base, geographic isolation and environmental precarity. Initially, I conduct a literature review of accounting-related papers based on PSIDS and provide some suggestions for a research agenda of SEA for PSIDS. The literature review highlights that SEA research in the Pacific is an under-researched area and the few studies on SEA in the Pacific have largely been based on Fiji. For many countries in the Pacific, there is a vacuum of academic literature, however, there is a need to better understand the role of SEA in assisting these island nations address pertinent social and environmental issues, and no issue is as important as climate change. I make some inter-related suggestions for the future of SEA research for PSIDS. These suggestions emphasise the production of knowledge that draws on a diversity of perspectives from other disciplines and focuses on developing solutions based on the context of PSIDS and the lived realities of Pacific Island peoples.