Small Changes In Behavior Research Articles

Determination of the apparent failure viscosity of tablets.

Quantitative differences in the plasticity of several direct compression excipients were found to be distinguishable using normalized work of failure determinations. New parameters were developed to characterize the importance of changes in strain rate application during a diametral crushing test. Failure viscosity was found to have a similar sensitivity to normalized work of failure measurements and was also able to distinguish small changes in plastic behaviour. In cases where it is not possible to measure tablet deformation during tablet crushing, failure viscosity determinations could provide an alternative method for characterizing differences in deformation behaviour.

Detecting Changes in Simulated Events Using Partial‐Interval Recording and Momentary Time Sampling III: Evaluating Sensitivity as a Function of Session Length

In a series of two studies, we graphed simulated data representing continuous duration recording and continuous frequency recording into ABAB reversal designs depicting small, moderate, and large behavior changes during 10‐min, 30‐min, and 60‐min sessions. Data sets were re‐scored using partial‐interval recording and momentary time sampling with interval sizes set at 10 s, 20 s, 30 s, 1 min, and 2 min. In study 1, we visually inspected converted data for experimental control and compared the conclusion with those from the respective continuous duration recording or continuous frequency recording data to test for false negatives. In study 2, we evaluated the extent to which interval methods that were sensitive to changes in study 1 produced false positives. In part, the results show that momentary time sampling with interval sizes up to 30 s detected a wide range of changes in duration events and frequency events during lengthier observation periods. The practical implications of the findings are briefly discussed. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Contribution of postnatal collagen reorientation to depth-dependent mechanical properties of articular cartilage

The collagen fibril network is an important factor for the depth-dependent mechanical behaviour of adult articular cartilage (AC). Recent studies show that collagen orientation is parallel to the articular surface throughout the tissue depth in perinatal animals, and that the collagen orientations transform to a depth-dependent arcade-like structure in adult animals. Current understanding on the mechanobiology of postnatal AC development is incomplete. In the current paper, we investigate the contribution of collagen fibril orientation changes to the depth-dependent mechanical properties of AC. We use a composition-based finite element model to simulate in a 1-D confined compression geometry the effects of ten different collagen orientation patterns that were measured in developing sheep. In initial postnatal life, AC is mostly subject to growth and we observe only small changes in depth-dependent mechanical behaviour. Functional adaptation of depth-dependent mechanical behaviour of AC takes place in the second half of life before puberty. Changes in fibril orientation alone increase cartilage stiffness during development through the modulation of swelling strains and osmotic pressures. Changes in stiffness are most pronounced for small stresses and for cartilage adjacent to the bone. We hypothesize that postnatal changes in collagen fibril orientation induce mechanical effects that in turn promote these changes. We further hypothesize that a part of the depth-dependent postnatal increase in collagen content in literature is initiated by the depth-dependent postnatal increase in fibril strain due to collagen fibril reorientation.

The Developmental Trajectories of Peer Victimization in Middle to Late Childhood and the Changing Nature of Their Behavioral Correlates

This study investigated the evolving relations between peer victimization and social/emotional difficulties in middle to late childhood. Peer assessments of peer victimization and social/emotional difficulties (aggressive behavior, social withdrawal, and emotional vulnerability) were collected over 4 years for 1,035 children attending Grades 3–6 and were analyzed via cross-lagged panels and trajectory analyses. All dimensions were highly stable and significantly related initially. Peer victimization became progressively less related to aggression and increasingly associated with withdrawal. Bidirectional contributions over 1-year periods were found between withdrawal and emotional vulnerability and victimization. Trajectory analyses revealed heterogeneity in peer victimization patterns, with a small group of children (4.5%) being extremely victimized and with another group (10%), less severely, but increasingly victimized over time. Compared to nonvictimized children, these children were generally more emotional and became less aggressive but more socially withdrawn over time. These small behavioral changes were not associated with decreases in victimization.

Healthy Eating on a Lean Budget: Diabetes Meals for Less

As the recession deepens and the unemployment rate hovers at 10%,1 diabetes clinicians often find themselves caring for individuals with serious financial concerns. Comments such as “Healthy food is too expensive,” “I can't afford to follow a diabetes diet,” and “Diabetic food costs too much” are now commonly heard during patient care encounters. It is not surprising that individuals with diabetes have financial issues because those with diagnosed diabetes, on average, have medical expenditures that are approximately 2.3 times higher than those without diabetes.2 According to the American Diabetes Association, the per capita annual cost of health care for people with diabetes is $11,744, of which $6,649 (57%) is attributed to diabetes.2 The recent economic downturn has added further financial pressure. The current Consumer Price Index Inflation Calculator estimates that what $100 would buy 5 years ago now costs $114.52,3 an amount that will vary with changes in the economy. Although some individuals with diabetes may not disclose financial anxieties to their clinicians, health care professionals should be aware that the inability to pay for food, medications, and other aspects of diabetes care can pose a barrier to optimal self-management. Health care professionals should be prepared to assist individuals with diabetes by providing guidance on pennywise meal planning, smart shopping, and cost-effective cooking to help patients reduce their food costs without sacrificing important aspects of their care. Planning pennywise meals is the first step toward taking a big bite out of food expenses. Sharing information such as “Saving just $5 a week on food—about the cost of one fast-food value meal—adds up to more than $250 a year” with patients can open a discussion about the effectiveness of making small behavior changes to move toward the bigger goal of healthy eating on a budget. Because today's …

A mutation in amino acid permease AAP6 reduces the amino acid content of the Arabidopsis sieve elements but leaves aphid herbivores unaffected

The aim of this study was to investigate the role of the amino acid permease gene AAP6 in regulating phloem amino acid composition and then to determine the effects of this altered diet on aphid performance. A genotype of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) was produced in which the function of the amino acid permease gene AAP6 (At5g49630) was abolished. Plants homozygous for the insertionally inactivated AAP6 gene had a significantly larger mean rosette width than the wild type and a greater number of cauline leaves. Seeds from the aap6 mutant were also significantly larger than those from the wild-type plants. Sieve element (SE) sap was collected by aphid stylectomy and the amino acids derivatized, separated, and quantified using Capillary Electrophoresis with Laser Induced Fluorescence (CE-LIF). In spite of the large variation across samples, the total amino acid concentration of SE sap of the aap6 mutant plants was significantly lower than that of the wild-type plants. The concentrations of lysine, phenylalanine, leucine, and aspartic acid were all significantly lower in concentration in the aap6 mutant plants compared with wild-type plants. This is the first direct demonstration of a physiological role for an amino acid transporter in regulating SE composition in vivo. The amino acid availability in sieve element sap is thought to be the major limiting factor for aphid growth and reproduction. Despite the changes in their diet, the aphid Myzus persicae (Sulzer) displayed only small changes in feeding behaviour on mutant plants when measured using the Electronic Penetration Graph (EPG) technique. Salivation by the aphid into the SE (E1 phase) was increased on mutant plants but there was no significant effect on other feeding EPG behaviours, or in the rate of honeydew production. Consistent with the small effect on aphid feeding behaviour, there was only a small effect of reduced sieve element amino acid concentration on aphid reproduction. The data are discussed in relation to the regulation of phloem composition and the role of phloem amino acids in regulating aphid performance.

Behavioral Mechanisms in HIV Epidemiology and Prevention: Past, Present, and Future Roles

In the 1980s, behavioral variations across geographically and socially defined populations were the central focus of AIDS research, and behavior change was seen as the primary means of controlling HIV epidemics. Today, biological mechanisms--especially other sexually transmitted infections, antiretroviral therapy, and male circumcision--predominate in HIV epidemiology and prevention. We describe several reasons for this shift in emphasis. Although the shift is understandable, we argue for a sustained focus on behavioral mechanisms in HIV research in order to realize the theoretical promise of interventions targeting the biological aspects of HIV risk. We also provide evidence to suggest that large reductions in HIV prevalence may be accomplished by small changes in behavior. Moreover, we contend that behavioral mechanisms will find their proper place in HIV epidemiology and prevention only when investigators adopt a conceptual model that treats prevalence as a determinant as well as an outcome of behavior and that explicitly recognizes the dynamic interdependence between behavior and other epidemiological and demographic parameters.

Detecting changes in simulated events II: Using variations of momentary time‐sampling to measure changes in duration events

AbstractThe extent to which a greater proportion of small behavior changes could be detected with momentary time‐sampling (MTS) was evaluated by (a) combining various interval sizes of partial‐interval recording (PIR) with 20 s, 30 s, 1 min MTS and (b) using variable interval sizes of MTS that were based on means of 20 s and 1 min. For each targeted percentage, low, moderate, and high inter‐response times (IRTs) to event‐run ratios were compared with reversal designs to determine whether sensitivity increased with either variation of MTS. The results showed that (a) combinations of 30 s and 1 min MTS/PIR yielded increased sensitivity over MTS alone; however, the increased sensitivity was offset by an increased probability of generating false positives and (b) variable‐interval MTS produced comparable sensitivity to fixed‐interval MTS. Thus, none of the methods increased detection of small behavior changes (decreased false negatives) without also increasing false positives. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Lamb Wave Propagation in Varying Isothermal Environments

Military and commercial aerospace organizations are exploring structural health monitoring (SHM) systems to reduce maintenance costs and to verify the integrity of structural components exposed to harsh conditions. This technical note considers the use of Lamb waves to monitor plate and shell components of aerospace structures. For fielded applications, SHM systems will need to operate across a variety of environmental conditions, including large temperature ranges. Therefore, it is critical to understand the effects of temperature on Lamb wave propagation. The focus of this study is the effect of temperature on Lamb wave propagation in a constant-thickness metallic plate under isothermal conditions. Experimental measurements and analytical predictions are made over temperatures ranging from -18°C to 107°C. Results indicate that only small and predictable changes in the wave propagation behavior occur over the temperature range investigated. This is significant because it may allow SHM systems to be designed for aircraft systems operating within this range without the need for complex compensation techniques.

The root microtubule cytoskeleton and cell cycle analysis through desiccation of Brassica napus seedlings

Desiccation tolerance (DT) of orthodox seeds is reduced upon their germination. The main aim of this study was to estimate the range of rape seedling DT by examining the consequences of desiccation on the distribution, stability and orientation of microtubules in diverse cells. Using different parameters, such as relative water content (RWC), the tetrazolium viability test and electrolyte leakage, it has been demonstrated that a small percentage decrease in relative humidity can cause irreparable changes in membrane permeability, as well as in nuclear structure and microtubule cytoskeleton stability. Seedling root tips survived when exposed to low desiccation stress intensity, but small changes in microtubule behavior were observed. Cortical microtubules formed thick arrays, especially near the plasma membrane. Water loss also resulted in a reduction of the mitotic activity. More rapid desiccation caused microtubule depolymerization. Occasionally, abnormal tubulin aggregates were visible. Cell divisions were not detectable under these conditions. Due to the observable microtubule defects, the hypersensitivity of the microtubule cytoskeleton might be a useful and simple parameter for estimating environmental stress intensity.

Panel Notes Modest Dementia-Drug Effects

Panel Notes Modest Dementia-Drug Effects

EMG biofeedback treatment of dysphonias and related voice disorders.

Abstract This article reviews the development of EMG biofeedback as a tool for operant learning, including the development of surface EMG biofeedback and support for the use of such biofeedback for treating dysphonias and related voice disorders. A few, well controlled empirical investigations suggest that EMG biofeedback helps some individuals with dysphonias to gain volitional control over specific laryngeal muscles, reduce tension around the vocal cords and (sometimes) improve vocal quality. EMG biofeedback has also been found effective for treating rare cases of ventricular fold dysphonia and paradoxical vocal cord motion. Further research is needed with clearer specification of electrode placement. However, EMG biofeedback represents a promising application of behavioral technology in the treatment of various functional dysphonias and voice disorders. Key Words: EMG, biofeedback, dysphonia, voice disorders, vocal tension, vocal quality Defining Biofeedback In biofeedback, internal autonomic events such as heart rate, blood pressure, or muscle tension are electronically amplified, providing an individual with body (i.e., bio) information (i.e., feedback) that is commonly unavailable. By using electronic instruments to accurately measure, process, and feed back information about the body, an individual is able to learn to develop control over these internal physiological events (Shapiro & Surwit, 1979). That is, internal responses thought to be involuntary have been found to be affected by consequences (i.e., operant learning) and subject to voluntary control as well. Indeed, empirical research has repeatedly demonstrated that through operant learning, humans can gain volitional control over numerous different internal physiological functions and the principle means of developing this control has been with consequences delivered via biofeedback (Schwartz & Olsen, 1995). The importance of biofeedback in learning to control internal physiology should not be surprising. Skinner predicted as much when he suggested that, there is no reason why covert behavior could not be amplified so that the individual himself could make use of the additional information... (pg 282) (Skinner, 1953). Indeed, much of the research on biofeedback has been made possible precisely because of significant advancements in instrumentation for measuring covert physiological behavior (Peek, 1995). Biomedical engineers have developed noninvasive and sophisticated technology for using surface recordings to measure what goes on inside the body. Thus, we can now accurately and reliably monitor, amplify, and transform physiological behavior into audio and or visual signals that are easily understandable. An individual can sit casually in front of a computer, have sensors taped to their skin, and watch a computer monitor to receive information about what is going on within the skin. The biofeedback allows individuals to experience immediate, frequent and potent consequences for even small changes in covert behavior; all features known to enhance the reinforcing effects of consequences during operant learning trials (Miltenberger, 2001). Defining Surface EMG (sEMG) Biofeedback One type of biofeedback involves electromyography. An electromyogram is a record of electrical activity from a muscle or group of muscles. The electrical activity is typically reported in microvolts ([micro]V). When that record is obtained from electrodes applied to the skin and the information is used to control muscle activity, it is called surface electromyographic (sEMG) biofeedback. The specificity of the biofeedback from surface muscles depends in part, upon the specificity of the signal, which is influenced by the arrangement of the electrodes. Electrodes placed close together and parallel to the muscle fibers will provide more specificity with respect to the targeted muscles, while electrodes placed farther apart and/or perpendicular to the muscle fibers will provide a more global measure of tension in the targeted area (Fogel, 1995; Sherman, 2003). …

Heavy metal load and dominance hierarchy in juvenile willow tits during winter

Possible links between plasma testosterone levels, heavy metal loads and dominance in juvenile male willow tits ( Parus montanus) are studied during winter conditions in Norway. Dominant individuals have better access to food resources, significantly higher cadmium content in the liver and higher plasma testosterone level compared to subordinates. A positive correlation was also found between plasma testosterone level and content of cadmium in the liver. Although the results in our study shows only a limited difference in testosterone level of dominant and subordinate juvenile male willow tits, possible small changes in behaviour might have crucial effects on winter survival of these birds.

Preventing Excessive Weight Gain

,Brownetal.(1)providemore evidence that the obesity epidemic has arisen fromgradual weight gain in the population produced by verysmall degrees of energy imbalance. The authors followedover 8000 middle-aged women in Australia for more than 5years, from 1996 to 2001. They found that the womengained an average of 0.5 kg/yr. They estimated that thisgradual weight gain represents an accumulation of 10kcal/d. This research supports our previous research show-ing that the average American adult gains 0.45–0.91 kg(1–2 lbs) each year, which would be an average accumula-tion of 15 kcal/d (2). There is an energy cost to storingexcess energy, which we estimated to be 50%, so that theactual degree of energy imbalance causing the weight gainin middle-aged Australian women would be 20 kcal/d andkcal/d. Targeting weight gain prevention is a long-term30 kcal/d in the U.S. adult population. The higher imbal-ance in the U.S. could be because of a more “obesigenic”environment or because the U.S. sample includes a widerrange of adults than the Australian sample (i.e., middle-agedwomen may be gaining weight at a lesser rate than other agegroups).We coined the term “energy gap,” which estimates theexcess daily energy intake over daily energy expenditurethat produces weight gain. Estimating the energy gap canprovide an indication of how much behavior change isrequired to prevent weight gain in any given population. Forexample, we estimated that if we could modify energybalance (any combination of reducing energy intake andincreasing energy expenditure) by 100 kcal/d, we couldprevent weight gain in 90% of the U.S. adult population (2).The implications of this research are that prevention ofexcessive weight gain could be accomplished through smallbehavior changes to “close” the energy gap. We have a poorability to produce and maintain the large behavior changesrequired to treat overweight and obesity. We have a betterchance of producing and sustaining small behavior changesthat may be sufficient to prevent weight gain in most of thepopulation. This small change approach can give us someneeded optimism that we might actually be able to begin toturn the tide on the increasing prevalence of obesity. Afeasible goal is to prevent weight gain in all adults, regard-less of their current weight status. A feasible goal forchildren is to prevent excessive weight gain, which can beidentified for specific groups of children by identifying theenergy gap. Some groups are gaining weight at a higher ratethan others and will have a greater energy gap. For example,Butte et al. (3) have studied a group of low income Hispanicchildren who are highly susceptible to weight gain and haveestimated the energy gap in this group to be 200–250strategy to reduce the prevalence of obesity, but it seems tobe our most feasible strategy given our current inability toproduce and sustain most behavior changes.It is important to realize that any changes in behavior,even small ones needed to close the energy gap, will bedifficult to sustain for the majority of the population unlesswe are able to make changes in the environment to make iteasier for people to maintain the behavior changes. To dothis, we will have to address the way we build communities,the way we market food and physical inactivity, the way weaim policies regarding food and physical activity, and eventhe way our sociocultural beliefs shape our individual andcollective behavior.

Genetic differences and school readiness.

The author considers whether differences in genetic endowment may account for racial and ethnic differences in school readiness. While acknowledging an important role for genes in explaining differences within races, he nevertheless argues that environment explains most of the gap between blacks and whites, leaving little role for genetics. Based on a wide range of direct and indirect evidence, particularly work by Klaus Eyferth and James Flynn, the author concludes that the black-white gap is not substantially genetic in orgin. In studies in 1959 and 1961, Eyferth first pointed to the near-disappearance of the black-white gap among children of black and white servicemen raised by German mothers after World War II. In the author's view, Flynn's exhaustive 1980 analysis of Eyferth's work provides close to definitive evidence that the black disadvantage is not genetic to any important degree. But even studies showing an important role for genes in explaining within-group differences, he says, do not rule out the possibility of improving the school performance of disadvantaged children through interventions aimed at improving their school readiness. Such interventions, he argues, should stand or fall on their own costs and benefits. And behavioral genetics offers some lessons in designing and evaluating interventions. Because normal differences in preschool resources or parenting practices in working- and middle-class families have only limited effects on school readiness, interventions can have large effects only if they significantly change the allocation of resources or the nature of parenting practices. The effects of most interventions on cognitive ability resemble the effect of exercise on physical conditioning: they are profound but short-lived. But if interventions make even small permanent changes in behavior that support improved cognitive ability, they can set off multiplier processes, with improved ability leading to more stimulating environments and still further improvements in ability. The best interventions, argues the author, would saturate a social group and reinforce individual multiplier effects by social multipliers and feedback effects. The aim of preschool programs, for example, should be to get students to continue to seek out the cognitive stimulation the program provides even after it ends.

Using Buzz Marketing to Promote Ideas, Services, and Products

To (1) discuss buzz marketing, contrast it with traditional forms of promotional communications, and provide guidelines for use and (2) describe a successful buzz-marketing program used by Sentara Healthcare to decrease overuse and inappropriate use of antibiotic medications. An English-language-only literature search of ABI Inform, Lexus-Nexus, InfoTrac, and university library databases from 1980 to the present using the keywords buzz, word of mouth, opinion leader, and thought leader. Articles and books were cross referenced for other works of interest. Performed by the author for their contribution to an exploratory analysis of this topic. Performed by the author. Buzz marketing is an indirect communications method that has been used successfully in the promotion of a wide variety of products, services, and ideas. By identifying and cultivating nonmedia opinion leaders, the technique generates word-of-mouth communications between these early adopters of products and services and the early and late majority of people who tend to follow their lead. Opinion leaders can be categorized as ordinary or extraordinary, technical or social, and specialist or generalist, depending on the nature of their communications, expertise, and range of knowledge. Buzz marketing is most useful for ideas that are memorable, produce small changes in behavior that have big effects over time, and have the potential to reach a "tipping point" in terms of momentum among a target population. Pharmacists can use buzz marketing for promoting innovative services such as pharmaceutical care. A case study is presented on the use of buzz marketing by a health system for decreasing antibiotic resistance through lessening of public demand for antibiotics and support of physicians in prescribing the agents appropriately. Buzz marketing is a potent force in the promotion of pharmaceuticals and can be used by pharmacists. It works best when patients perceive the benefits of innovations. Providing samples and demonstrations of the innovation will foster positive perceptions. Innovations also spread better when they are compatible with the needs, desires, and preferences of individuals and can be adapted to the unique situation of the adopter.

04/01343 Electricity from bagasse in Zimbabwe: Mbohwa, C. and Fukuda, S. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2003, 25, (2), 197–207

To (1) discuss buzz marketing, contrast it with traditional forms of promotional communications, and provide guidelines for use and (2) describe a successful buzz-marketing program used by Sentara Healthcare to decrease overuse and inappropriate use of antibiotic medications.An English-language-only literature search of ABI Inform, Lexus-Nexus, InfoTrac, and university library databases from 1980 to the present using the keywords buzz, word of mouth, opinion leader, and thought leader. Articles and books were cross referenced for other works of interest.Performed by the author for their contribution to an exploratory analysis of this topic.Performed by the author.Buzz marketing is an indirect communications method that has been used successfully in the promotion of a wide variety of products, services, and ideas. By identifying and cultivating nonmedia opinion leaders, the technique generates word-of-mouth communications between these early adopters of products and services and the early and late majority of people who tend to follow their lead. Opinion leaders can be categorized as ordinary or extraordinary, technical or social, and specialist or generalist, depending on the nature of their communications, expertise, and range of knowledge. Buzz marketing is most useful for ideas that are memorable, produce small changes in behavior that have big effects over time, and have the potential to reach a “tipping point” in terms of momentum among a target population. Pharmacists can use buzz marketing for promoting innovative services such as pharmaceutical care. A case study is presented on the use of buzz marketing by a health system for decreasing antibiotic resistance through lessening of public demand for antibiotics and support of physicians in prescribing the agents appropriately.Buzz marketing is a potent force in the promotion of pharmaceuticals and can be used by pharmacists. It works best when patients perceive the benefits of innovations. Providing samples and demonstrations of the innovation will foster positive perceptions. Innovations also spread better when they are compatible with the needs, desires, and preferences of individuals and can be adapted to the unique situation of the adopter.

Fault detection of nonlinear dynamic systems with emperical input/output models

Predictive maintenance has become a familiar concept in industrial fault detection regime. The ability to detect early warning signals in systems in the form of small changes in dynamic behavior is essential to anticipate failures. This implies that the fault detection method must be well tuned to a particular process. In general, accurate system models are an essential part in residual based fault detection. However, in complex nonlinear systems, the development of accurate models can be very difficult, thus usually other approaches are often selected. As an alternative to the nonlinear analytical models, neural networks have shown significant potential in accurately representing nonlinear systems. This paper utilizes a non-typical model structure which includes internal states, so that the identification method is similar to a nonlinear extension to (linear) subspace identification. This model is then used with a moving horizon observer to generate residuals. The experimental section shows the observer implemented on a thermo fluid system, with several introduced faults.

Obesity and the environment: where do we go from here?

The obesity epidemic shows no signs of abating. There is an urgent need to push back against the environmental forces that are producing gradual weight gain in the population. Using data from national surveys, we estimate that affecting energy balance by 100 kilocalories per day (by a combination of reductions in energy intake and increases in physical activity) could prevent weight gain in most of the population. This can be achieved by small changes in behavior, such as 15 minutes per day of walking or eating a few less bites at each meal. Having a specific behavioral target for the prevention of weight gain may be key to arresting the obesity epidemic.

Suppression of the ELO-2 FA elongation activity results in alterations of the fatty acid composition and multiple physiological defects, including abnormal ultradian rhythms, in Caenorhabditis elegans.

While the general steps of fatty acid (FA) biosynthesis are well understood, the individual enzymes involved in the elongation of long chain saturated and polyunsaturated FA (PUFA) are largely unknown. Recent research indicates that these enzymes might be of considerable physiological importance for human health. We use Caenorhabditis elegans to study FA elongation activities and associated abnormal phenotypes. In this article we report that the predicted C. elegans F11E6.5/ELO-2 is a functional enzyme with the FA elongation activity. It is responsible for the elongation of palmitic acid and is involved in PUFA biosynthesis. RNAi-mediated suppression of ELO-2 causes an accumulation of palmitate and an associated decrease in the PUFA fraction in triacylglycerides and phospholipid classes. This imbalance in the FA composition results in multiple phenotypic defects such as slow growth, small body size, reproductive defects, and changes in rhythmic behavior. ELO-2 cooperates with the previously reported ELO-1 in 20-carbon PUFA production, and at least one of the enzymes must function to provide normal growth and development in C. elegans. The presented data indicate that suppression of a single enzyme of the FA elongation machinery is enough to affect various organs and systems in worms. This effect resembles syndromic disorders in humans.