SIX Family Research Articles

Cooperation between myogenic regulatory factors and SIX family transcription factors is important for myoblast differentiation

Precise regulation of gene expression is crucial to myogenesis and is thought to require the cooperation of various transcription factors. On the basis of a bioinformatic analysis of gene regulatory sequences, we hypothesized that myogenic regulatory factors (MRFs), key regulators of skeletal myogenesis, cooperate with members of the SIX family of transcription factors, known to play important roles during embryonic skeletal myogenesis. To this day little is known regarding the exact molecular mechanism by which SIX factors regulate muscle development. We have conducted a functional genomic study of the role played by SIX1 and SIX4 during the differentiation of skeletal myoblasts, a model of adult muscle regeneration. We report that SIX factors cooperate with the members of the MRF family to activate gene expression during myogenic differentiation, and that their function is essential to this process. Our findings also support a model where SIX factors function not only ‘upstream’ of the MRFs during embryogenesis, but also ‘in parallel’ to them during myoblast differentiation. We have identified new essential nodes that depend on SIX factor function, in the myogenesis regulatory network, and have uncovered a novel way by which MRF function is modulated during differentiation.

Complexity of cis-regulatory organization of six3aduring forebrain and eye development in zebrafish

BackgroundSix3a belongs to the SIX family of homeodomain proteins and is expressed in the most anterior neural plate at the beginning of neurogenesis in various species. Though the function of Six3a as a crucial regulator of eye and forebrain development has been thoroughly investigated, the transcriptional regulation of six3a is not well understood.ResultsTo elucidate the transcriptional regulation of six3a, we performed an in vivo reporter assay. Alignment of the 21-kb region surrounding the zebrafish six3a gene with the analogous region from different species identified several conserved non-coding modules. Transgenesis in zebrafish identified two enhancer elements and one suppressor. The D module drives the GFP reporter in the forebrain and eyes at an early stage, while the A module is responsible for the later expression. The A module also works as a repressor suppressing ectopic expression from the D module. Mutational analysis further minimized the A module to four highly conserved elements and the D module to three elements. Using electrophoresis mobility shift assays, we also provided evidence for the presence of DNA-binding proteins in embryonic nuclear extracts. The transcription factors that may occupy those highly conserved elements were also predicted.ConclusionThis study provides a comprehensive view of six3a transcription regulation during brain and eye development and offers an opportunity to establish the gene regulatory networks underlying neurogenesis in zebrafish.

Focus on Molecules: Six3 – Master or Apprentice?

Six3 (also known as six homeobox-3), a vertebrate homolog of the Drosophila ‘sine oculis’ (so) gene, is a member of the evolutionarily conserved SIX family. The members of SIX family are found in diverse organisms including flatworms, fruit fly, medaka fish, chickens, frogs, zebrafish, mice and humans (Oliver et al., 1995). Members of the SIX gene family encode transcription factors characterized by the presence of evolutionarily conserved DNA-binding homeodomain and an upstream SIX domain, which may be involved both in determining DNA-binding specificity and in mediating proteineprotein interactions (Fig. 1A). DNA-binding activity of so is mediated through the Prd class of homeobox nucleic acid recognition domain (HD). SIX proteins contain lysine residue at position fifty (K50), which assign SIX3 to an Orthodenticle sub-group within the Prd class. The site bound by SIX3 contains the traditional ATTA homeodomain core recognition sequence. Even though there are individual differences, the consensus binding sites for SIX proteins in flies and worms are TGATAC and GGGTATCA. The SIX domain which is the second interaction domain in the six3 protein, is 146 amino acids long, and lies just 50 and directly adjacent to the HD. This domain is involved inmediating proteineprotein interactions.

Biochemical and Functional Characterization of Six SIX1 Branchio-oto-renal Syndrome Mutations

Branchio-oto-renal syndrome (BOR) is an autosomal dominant developmental disorder characterized by hearing loss, branchial arch defects, and renal anomalies. Recently, eight mutations in the SIX1 homeobox gene were discovered in BOR patients. To characterize the effect of SIX1 BOR mutations on the EYA-SIX1-DNA complex, we expressed and purified six of the eight mutants in Escherichia coli. We demonstrate that only the most N-terminal mutation in SIX1 (V17E) completely abolishes SIX1-EYA complex formation, whereas all of the other mutants are able to form a stable complex with EYA. We further show that only the V17E mutant fails to localize EYA to the nucleus and cannot be stabilized by EYA in the cell. The remaining five SIX1 mutants are instead all deficient in DNA binding. In contrast, V17E alone has a DNA binding affinity similar to that of wild type SIX1 in complex with the EYA co-factor. Finally, we show that all SIX1 BOR mutants are defective in transcriptional activation using luciferase reporter assays. Taken together, our experiments demonstrate that the SIX1 BOR mutations contribute to the pathology of the disease through at least two different mechanisms that involve: 1) abolishing the formation of the SIX1-EYA complex or 2) diminishing the ability of SIX1 to bind DNA. Furthermore, our data demonstrate for the first time that EYA: 1) requires the N-terminal region of the SIX1 Six domain for its interaction, 2) increases the level of the SIX1 protein within the cell, and 3) increases the DNA binding affinity of SIX1.

DNA-Binding and Regulation Mechanisms of the SIX Family of Retinal Determination Proteins

The Six/sine oculis proteins are homeodomain transcription factors that are part of the Pax/Eya/Six/Dach retinal determination cascade involved in embryonic cell fate determination. There are six mammalian Six homologues, divided into three classes on the basis of sequence homology. In the present study we examined the DNA-binding specificity and mechanisms of Six2 and Six6 toward the Trex/MEF3 consensus sequence and the core tetranucleotide ATTA commonly recognized by homeodomain proteins. The results suggest that the Six homeodomain does not bind DNA owing to the absence of a key structural feature, the basic N-terminal arm, implicated in canonical homeodomain-DNA binding. Furthermore, the DNA-binding mechanisms and DNA sequence specificity differ among these Six proteins despite the complete conservation of predicted DNA-contacting residues in their homeodomains. Inclusion of 14 amino acid residues immediately C-terminal to the homeodomain of Six6 yields a protein construct able to bind both DNA sequences tested with nanomolar affinity. However, an analogous Six2 construct remains unable to bind DNA. Furthermore, we show that the DNA-binding affinity of Six2 is increased nearly 12-fold by complex formation with the Eyes Absent tyrosine phosphatase, while Six6-DNA binding is not similarly enhanced. This phenomenon could contribute to the synergy observed between Six2 and Eyes Absent in transcriptional activation and in eye development.

Transcription Factor SIX5 Is Mutated in Patients with Branchio-Oto-Renal Syndrome

Branchio-oto-renal syndrome (BOR) is an autosomal dominant developmental disorder characterized by the association of branchial arch defects, hearing loss, and renal anomalies. Mutations in EYA1 are known to cause BOR. More recently, mutations in SIX1, which interacts with EYA1, were identified as an additional cause of BOR. A second member of the SIX family of proteins, unc-39 (SIX5), has also been reported to directly interact with eya-1 in Caenorhabditis elegans. We hypothesized that this interaction would be conserved in humans and that interactors of EYA1 represent good candidate genes for BOR. We therefore screened a cohort of 95 patients with BOR for mutations in SIX5. Four different heterozygous missense mutations were identified in five individuals. Functional analyses of these mutations demonstrated that two mutations affect EYA1-SIX5 binding and the ability of SIX5 or the EYA1-SIX5 complex to activate gene transcription. We thereby identified heterozygous mutations in SIX5 as a novel cause of BOR.

Sine oculis, a member of the SIX family of transcription factors, directs eye formation

The initiation of eye formation in all seeing animals is controlled by a group of selector genes that together forms the retinal determination cascade. In Drosophila, mice and humans, loss-of-function mutations lead to defects in eye and/or head development. While ectopic expression of these genes is sufficient to direct non-retinal tissues towards an eye fate, the ability of each gene to initiate eye formation is neither unlimited nor equal. A particularly enigmatic observation has been that one member of the cascade, sine oculis ( so), which is a member of the SIX family of homeobox transcription factors, is unable to initiate eye development in non-retinal tissues. It is in contrast to every other retinal determination gene including optix, another Six family member, which can induce eye formation when expressed on its own. Here we demonstrate that, in contrast to published reports, expression of so on its own is sufficient to induce eye development within non-retinal tissues. We have extended results from prior reports on binding partner selectivity and DNA binding sites by conducting a structure/function analysis of the SO and OPTIX proteins. Here we demonstrate that the SIX domains and C-terminal portions of the SO and OPTIX proteins are required for functional specificity of SIX class transcription factors while the homeodomain of these proteins are interchangeable. Taken together, these results shed new light on the role that so plays in eye specification.

Characterisation of the transcription factor, SIX5, using a new panel of monoclonal antibodies

SIX5 is a member of the human SIX family of transcription factors, many of which are involved in eye development. However, SIX5 transcripts are known to be present at very low levels in cells and no study has yet convincingly demonstrated detection of endogenous SIX5 protein by Western blotting or immunolocalisation. We have produced a new panel of 18 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) that recognise at least four different epitopes in order to identify authentic human SIX5 protein in cells and tissues. Phage-displayed peptide libraries were used to identify individual amino-acids important for antibody binding within each epitope. Endogenous SIX5 migrated in SDS-PAGE with an apparent M(r) of 100 kDa and was present at similar levels in all foetal tissues and cell lines tested. In HeLa cells, it was located in the nucleoplasm with a granular distribution. An mRNA for a shorter splicing isoform of SIX5, with an altered carboxy-terminus, has been described, but further mAbs specific for this isoform did not detect any endogenous protein. We conclude that the full-length isoform is the major functional protein in vivo while the putative shorter protein is undetectable and may not be expressed at all.

The Human SIX Family of Homeobox Genes

The Drosophila sine oculis (so) gene is a high hierarchy and essential gene in the developmental pathway of the fly visual system. so is the founder member of the SIX family, which in the fly also includes the genes D-six3 (optix) and D-six4 and in vertebrates, the SIX1, SIX2, SIX3, SIX4, SIX5 and SIX6 genes. In addition to a homeobox domain, all members of the SIX family of proteins contain a characteristic highly conserved region denoted as the SIX domain. Genes of the SIX family encode nuclear homeobox proteins that have been proposed to be the DNA binding domain of a transcription complex that also includes members of the EYA (eyes absent) gene family. A number of studies suggest important roles for the SIX genes in the development of the anterior part of the vertebrate CNS and eye, in myogenesis and perhaps also in the development of the auditory system, kidneys, digits and connective tissue. This review presents a comprehensive description of the current knowledge of the human SIX gene family, including unpublished data from our laboratories. We describe the genomic organization and structure of the human SIX genes and discuss their phylogenetic relationships in the context of the evolution of the SIX gene family. Using data mostly available from other species we discuss the developmental expression patterns and function of the SIX genes. Lastly, we present the current knowledge of the involvement of the SIX genes in human disease. Keywords: Homeobox genes, drosophila sine oculis so gene, sine oculis gene, six dysfunction, holoprosencephaly type II hpe

Structure, mapping and expression of the human gene encoding the homeodomain protein, SIX2.

Vertebrate genes with sequence similarity to the Drosophila homeobox gene, sine oculis (so), constitute the SIX family. There is notable expression of members of this family in anterior neural structures, and several SIX genes have been shown to play roles in vertebrate and insect development, or have been implicated in maintenance of the differentiated state of tissues. Mutations in three of these genes in man (SIX5, SIX6 and SIX3) are associated with severe phenotypes, and therefore, the cloning of other human genes from this family is of interest. We have cloned and characterised the gene that encodes human SIX2, elucidated its gene structure and conducted expression studies in a range of tissues. SIX2 is widely expressed in the late first-trimester fetus, but has a limited range of expression sites in the adult. The expression pattern of SIX2 and its localisation to chromosome 2p15-p16 will be of use in assessing its candidacy in human developmental disorders.

Genomic Cloning and Characterization of the Human Homeobox Gene SIX6 Reveals a Cluster of SIX Genes in Chromosome 14 and Associates SIX6 Hemizygosity with Bilateral Anophthalmia and Pituitary Anomalies

The Drosophila gene sine oculis (so), a nuclear homeoprotein that is required for eye development, has several homologues in vertebrates (the SIX gene family). Among them, SIX3 is considered to be the functional orthologue of so because it is strongly expressed in the developing eye. However, embryonic SIX3 expression is not limited to the eye field, and SIX3 has been found to be mutated in some patients with holoprosencephaly type 2 (HPE2), suggesting that SIX3 has wide implications in head development. We report here the cloning and characterization of SIX6, a novel human SIX gene that is the homologue of the chick Six6(Optx2) gene. SIX6 is closely related to SIX3 and is expressed in the developing and adult human retina. Data from chick and mouse suggest that the human SIX6 gene is also expressed in the hypothalamic and the pituitary regions. SIX6 spans 2567 bp of genomic DNA and is split in two exons that are transcribed into a 1393-nucleotide-long mRNA. Chromosomal mapping of SIX6 revealed that it is closely linked to SIX1 and SIX4 in human chromosome 14q22.3–q23, which provides clues about the origin and evolution of the vertebrate SIX family. Recently three independent reports have associated interstitial deletions at 14q22.3–q23 with bilateral anophthalmia and pituitary anomalies. Genomic analyses of one of these cases demonstrated SIX6 hemizygosity, strongly suggesting that SIX6 haploinsufficiency is responsible for these developmental disorders.