Digital Single Market Research Articles

Text and data mining exceptions in the development of generative AI models: What the EU member states could learn from the Japanese “nonenjoyment” purposes?

AbstractThe European Union (EU) text and data mining (TDM) provisions are a progressive move, but the horizon is still uncertain for both generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) models researchers and developers. This article suggests that to drive innovation and further the commitment to the digital single market, during the national implementation, EU Member States could consider taking the Japanese broad, all‐encompassing and “nonenjoyment‐based” TDM as an example. The Japanese “nonenjoyment” purposes, however, are not foreign to the European continental view of copyright. A similar concept can be found under the German concept of “Freier Werkgenuss” or enjoyment of the work. A flexible TDM exception built upon the German notion of nonenjoyment purposes could become an opening clause to foster innovation and creativity in the age of GenAI. Moreover, the article argues that an opening clause allowing TDM with “nonenjoyment” purposes could be permissible under the so‐called three‐step test. This article further suggests, if there is no political will to safeguard “the right to read should be the right to mine” and to provide a welcoming environment for GenAI researchers and developers, when shaping the legal interpretation through national case law, the EU Member States could consider the following: (1) advocate for 72 h of response if technological protection measures (TPMs) are preventing TDM, and (2) Robot Exclusion Standard (robot.txt) as a warning when TDM is not allowed on a website. It is now in the hands of the EU Member States, whether to protect the interests of rightholders or to create a balance between safeguarding “the right to read should be the right to mine,” protecting rightholders exclusivity, and creating a supportive environment for the GenAI models researcher and developers.

Digital user rights and their enforcement: What is the copyright directive asking for?

AbstractArt 17 Directive 2019/790 on copyright and related rights in the Digital Single Market (CDSMD) offers not only a new perspective on service provider liability but also on user rights in the digital sphere of copyright law. The Directive obliges Member States to enable users of online content sharing service providers to assert the use of an exception or limitation before a court or another judicial authority. Hence, art 17 CDSMD foresees a subjective, that is, enforceable, right of the user deriving out of the exceptions and limitations of copyright and related rights. Yet, there is no clear guidance on how to transpose this requirement into national law, neither in art 17 CDSMD nor within the judgment of the CJEU in the annulment proceeding or the guidance of the EU Commission. This generates uncertainty for Member States, for which the concept of enforceable user rights is novel. The paper examines the requirements which art 17 CDSMD sets out for digital user rights and the difficulties for Member States to comply with them. The example of the German transposition of art 17 CDSMD shows that a high standard of user protection is not necessarily accompanied by a respective enforceability mechanism.

Digital Single Market, Social Media, the Digital Educational System, Romania, and the European Union: A Critical View

The primary goal of this article is to analyze, investigate, and interpretsome concepts related to digitalization and Romanian digital policyin the context of the European Union, especially in these pandemictimes that highlight the exclusion of disadvantaged people such as theyoung, low-income, and elderly from various perspectives such as theeducational state, social, economic, and cultural. This paper proposesa brief history, status, and future perspectives of the digital era, as wellas an objective perspective on the discrepancies between Romania’ssystem and those at the European Union level, as well as discrepanciesbetween ambitions and practical results via analyses and officialstatistics. This article also contends that Romania has a large potentialfor digital growth, and that the use of technology may aid and enhancethe lives of individuals from various vulnerable groups, such as theelderly and schoolchildren.

From Market Liberalism to Public Intervention: Digital Sovereignty and Changing European Union Digital Single Market Governance

AbstractAgainst the backdrop of the ever‐increasing importance of digital services, the European Union (EU) is promoting deepening of its digital single market (DSM). Whilst the single market has often been portrayed as the Trojan horse of neoliberalism, recent rhetoric on digital sovereignty indicates a desire for more control over the digital sphere. A historical case study of key elements of the DSM, namely digital services regulation and data protection, shows that EU governance has become less market‐liberal and more public‐interventionist. In response to challenges associated with the digital economy, policy goals have been broadened to include further objectives in addition to competitiveness. Stakeholders and public authorities rather than business actors have become more important in governance processes, and more market‐correcting instruments have been introduced. These reforms have been made by adding more interventionist elements and also by redirecting the role of the European Commission to overseeing very large online platforms.

Bulgarian contribution to the economics of the European Union

Bulgaria, as one of the youngest members of the European Union (EU), has made significant contributions to the economic development of the Union. Since joining the European Union in 2007, Bulgaria has undergone a series of economic reforms and has shown impressive growth rates, which have had positive effects on the European Union's economy. The country's strategic location, low-cost labour force, and relatively low corporate tax rates have made it an attractive destination for foreign investors, leading to increased trade and investment flows between Bulgaria and other European Union member states. Bulgaria has also played an active role in the European Union's efforts to deepen economic integration and promote the digital single market. However, the country still faces challenges related to corruption, governance, and demographic trends that need to be addressed to ensure sustainable growth and to fully realize its potential in the European Union's economy.

The Emperor Has No Clothes: How the Press Publishers’ Right Implementation Exposes Its Shortcomings

Abstract This article discusses the implementation of the press publishers’ right introduced by Art. 15 of the Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (CDSM). It analyses Member States’ transpositions through the lens of the legislative intent of the EU legislator, who aimed to strengthen the press publishers’ bargaining position towards digital intermediates while preserving users’ freedom to share information online. The article argues that the implementation process further exposes the shortcomings of the press publishers’ right and its unfitness to deliver the goals set. The negotiation basis that the right provides is neither clear, nor capable of correcting bargaining imbalances, as it is unable to force relevant platforms to the negotiation table. The extension of the scope of the press publishers’ right to social media is questionable, as it inherently influences users’ freedoms. The article cautions against the implementation of the press publishers’ right in a way that mimics the solutions endorsed in the competition law-based bargaining codes with the excess of implementation freedoms provided by the CDSM Directive.

Research on Digitization Processes in Ukraine in The Context of Post-War Reconstruction

The research output is the identification of trends in digital transformations of Ukraine in the conditions of war as an important mechanism for the economic growth. It is expected that the implementation of DESI in Ukraine will enable determining the progress of digital development, comparing it with the EU digital economies, and thus contribute to the integration into the Single Digital Market of the EU. Particular attention is paid to post-war government, war risk insurance for investments in Ukraine, decentralization of crypto-assets, and legalization of the virtual assets market.

Regulation of Online Platforms in the EU Digital Single Market: Opportunities for the EAEU

The paper analyzes the formation and development of the EU Digital Single Market, as well as the specifics of online platforms regulation in the EU, taking into account the judicial practice formed by the EU Court. It is concluded that EU regulatory legal acts do not always provide sufficient regulation from the point of view of harmonization of national rules in the field of the digital market. In this regard, a special role is assigned to the EU Court of Justice in interpreting EU regulatory legal acts and elimination of gaps in the law. The author concludes that the European Commission on the Digital Single Market quite often uses the message format to broadcast its decisions, which indicates that it does not have executive powers at the EU level. The same is true for the EEC, which operates at the EAEU level. The EU legal acts regulating the activities of online platforms and the digital market as a whole are more detailed, unlike those legal acts that operate in the EAEU and are essentially programmatic, denoting topical issues and common vectors of development. The Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union creates a regulatory legal framework for the implementation of the program to create a Digital Single Market of the EAEU. In this regard, the EAEU should increase the intensity of interaction within the legal framework of the common market of goods, services, capital and labor, create universal concepts and models based on the experience of the E, in particular, the concept of «know your business client». It is necessary to take into account the specifics of the EAEU region increasing the role of the EAEU Court in the formation of the general legal model of the functioning of the Digital Single Market. Given the new reality of political and economic relations, the creation and development of the EAEU Digital Single Market is an important point for ensuring digital and economic sovereignty.

디지털 단일시장의 파급효과와 유럽의 인권 보호 전통 사이의 융합 관점에서 보는 유럽연합의 일반개인정보보호규정

In this paper, I tried to explain the historical significance of the General Data Protection Regulation(GDPR), a personal information protection law, by examining the backgrounds of the establishment and the large contents frame of this Regulation. Through this study the author of this article came to the conclusion that the most important background and driving force for the birth of the European Union's personal information protection law was the development of the Single Market implied in the Single European Act of 1986. By its spillover effect to the flow of the digital·data time, the Digital Single Market developed into the being. These met with the tradition of human rights protection in Europe in convergence and formed the European Union's unique personal information protection law system and contents, which have great meaning for the European Integration and significance in the world. In this context, this General Data Protection Regulation is also expected to trigger significant spillover effects necessary to solve the problems of Europe and the world emerging in the so-called Fourth Industrial Revolution era.

Interoperability for EU DSM: Implementation of CEF building blocks in the Smart4Health project - success stories and lessons learned

The Smart4Health (S4H) software application will enable European Union (EU) citizens to manage, analyse, and exchange their aggregated electronic health data. This citizen-centred EU electronic health record (EHR) exchange approach for personalised health services will be the first step for the provision of citizen-centred solutions and services in a digital single market for wellbeing and healthcare. Establishing interoperability between the diverse EU EHR data and citizen-generated health data is mandatory to guarantee adequate usability, reliability, and trust of the service. The Connecting Europe Facility (CEF) building blocks address/fulfil such aspects while complying with EU regulations. Here we demonstrate the current status and applicability of the CEF building blocks in the digital health environment for the envisioned S4H software application. The major findings and success stories resulted from the S4H Project are as follows: (1) a secure and user-friendly eID service for the EU-wide Smart4Health community was successfully integrated into the Smart4Health platform, whereby 7 out of the 13 supported EU Member States are already connected, (2) the eTranslation service was compared to other popular alternatives on the market with the result that eTranslation is a secure and valid tool to address multi-language challenges and (3) we identified several use cases for which Smart4Health can benefit from the usage of CEF building blocks, including the improvement of data quality and increase of trust in data sharing.

Did the Colombian Constitutional Court foresee the conditions for implementing Articles 18 to 23 of the Directive (EU) 2019/790?

... For an article that relates to the implementation of Directive (EU) 2019/790 on copyright in the digital single market (the ‘EU Directive’),1 the title of this piece might, to some, raise a nonsensical question. Hopefully, however, they would concede that this is a useful exercise to demonstrate that the principles supporting one key aspect of the EU Directive have already been identified by a senior court in another jurisdiction. This article seeks to highlight possible parallels between Colombia’s copyright law and constitutional jurisprudence and the newly harmonized regulation of contractual relationships between authors and rightholders in EU copyright law, enshrined in Articles 18 to 23 of the EU Directive. It argues that, because of the commonalities identified, the EU Directive may provide a possible model for reform Colombian copyright law to protect more adequately the interests of authors who are often the weaker party in contracts relating to copyright works.

НАПРЯМИ ТА ОПЕРАТИВНІ ЗАХОДИ РЕАЛІЗАЦІЇ РЕГУЛЯТИВНОЇ ТРАНСФОРМАЦІЇ ЦИФРОВОГО РИНКУ ЄС

The article delves into the strategies and actions required for the EU’s digital market regulatory overhaul. A primary goal of the EU Digital Single Market is to align public and private services throughout the European Union. An interoperable cross-border digital infrastructure hinges on three pivotal factors: Framework compatibility of digital administration within the EU, creating a single euro payment area within the financial sector, and enhancing electronic identification and trust services for electronic transactions within the internal market. It is established that the European Union has developed an interconnected digital public infrastructure within its Digital Single Market, facilitating frictionless cross-border collaboration among individu- als, enterprises, and governmental bodies. There is a strong emphasis on digitalization instigating swift transformations within the EU labor market, exerting influence over labor’s character, caliber, and efficiency. Notably, four essential components are requisite for attaining an all-encompassing, constructive, innovative effect of digitization on the EU labor market: financing, national regulatory frameworks, European Union regulations, and rejuvenated collective initiatives. The article outlined future directions for the regulatory transformation of the EU digital market. Priority is given to areas with high potential for returns and where practical operational measures can be implemented. The analysis of these directions and the operational measures re- quired for transforming the European Union’s digital market has led to the conclusion that the EU is currently engaged in revis- ing the European Interoperability Framework. This framework facilitates the interaction of government administrations across the EU, enhancing communication and cross-border service provision. In the realm of payments, enhancements are underway for SEPA, including its integration into the interoperability of instant payments across the EU. Additionally, efforts are being made to expand and reform electronic identification systems. Cross-border digital public infrastructure is vital in establishing the EU’s Digital Single Market, an initiative currently undergoing dynamic development to enhance the compatibility of various digital infrastructures among EU member states. This effort aims to improve service delivery throughout the European Union. The enforcement of the EU Digital Markets Act (DMA), which has recently come into effect, plays a pivotal role in the ongoing transformation and standardization of regulations within the EU digital market. It introduces more competitive rules and ensures a potentially higher level of consumer rights protection than other global economic regions. However, it is worth noting that national competition authorities have been granted substantial enforcement powers under the DMA, which may affect the overall dynamics of the EU’s Digital Single Market.

ПЕРСПЕКТИВИ РОЗВИТКУ УКРАЇНСЬКИХ ІНТЕРНЕТ-МАГАЗИНІВ НА ЄВРОПЕЙСЬКОМУ РИНКУ

The main problems of e-commerce and the drivers of its prospective development at the current stage of the Ukrainian economy are identified. An analysis of scientific literature and relevant publications related to e-business in Ukraine was carried out. It is shown that in modern conditions, the main reference point for the formation and implementation of integration processes in the digital economy of Ukraine is the EU Digital Single Market Strategy. A research of modern trends in the development of e-commerce in Ukraine in modern conditions was carried out. The potential for Ukrainian business development and its promotion abroad was determined. The advantages of the European e-commerce market for the Ukrainian entrepreneur in the context of Ukraine's integration into the Digital Single Market are revealed. Trends in the development of e-commerce in Ukraine during the war were studied. The main problems and difficulties of exporting Ukrainian goods abroad were identified. The peculiarities of the entry of Ukrainian Internet stores into European markets are analyzed. Practical cases of successful Ukrainian online stores, which today operate on European markets, in particular, Poland, Romania, and Moldova, have been studied. The main problems and prospects for the further promotion of Ukrainian Internet business on European markets are revealed. The main factors affecting the success of Ukrainian online stores entering foreign markets have been determined, in particular, adaptation of the web-site for the local consumer, transparency of pricing, convenience of placing an order, paying for goods on the web-site, and convenient delivery. The directions for the introduction of the innovative technologies and marketing digital tools, which contribute to the growth of business competitiveness and consumer loyalty, are substantiated. It is shown that Ukrainian Internet stores should not only be adapted to European legal norms of doing business when entering international markets, but also use Internet marketing and demonstrate their competitive advantages. It has been proven that the entry of Ukrainian enterprises into foreign markets requires effective measures to analyze the market and target audience, take into account regional specifics, implement technological innovations, and also use Internet marketing tools.

ОСОБЛИВОСТІ РЕГУЛЮВАННЯ СФЕРИ ІНФОРМАЦІЙНО-КОМУНІКАЦІЙНИХ ТЕХНОЛОГІЙ ДЛЯ ПОДОЛАННЯ ЕКОНОМІЧНОЇ НЕРІВНОСТІ КРАЇН В МЕЖАХ ЄС

The article examines the uneven distribution of access to data, which leads to the emergence of inequality, which is based on information and communication technologies. It was determined that the rapid aging of telecommunications means is indicative of a growing digital divide, both within the country and between countries. The current trends in global digital inequality are characterized. It is noted that international unified regulation of the field of information and communication technologies can be one of the ways to reduce both economic inequality and the "digital divide". The main principles of supranational regulation are described on the example of the European Union. International cooperation in the field of protecting the privacy of cross-border data, the flows of which are growing, is considered. Features of the new "Digital Europe" program are revealed, which will be crucial for the availability of artificial intelligence technology for small and medium-sized enterprises in all member states with the help of digital innovation centers, enhanced testing facilities, experiments and training programs. The strategic priorities of the European Union have been determined to be the implementation of the Single Digital Market initiative, which will ensure the free movement of people, services and capital, uninterrupted access and conduct of activities on the Internet under conditions of fair competition, as well as guaranteed protection of personal data. Proposals regarding a set of measures to ensure high-quality access to the Internet on the territory of the EU were considered. The main goal on the path to creating a single digital market in Europe is the implementation of the European cloud initiative, which provides for the provision of world-class data infrastructure to industry, government bodies and science. The proposals of the European Commission regarding the implementation of the Digital Compass for the realization of the digital ambitions of the EU by 2030 are presented. It was determined that the ICT regulation system is effective and aimed at leveling individual inequalities in the economic development of countries within the EU, creating equal opportunities for access to ICT and achieving leadership in the field of digital technologies in the future.

Development of a metric for assessing the competitiveness of Ukraine according to the progress of the digital transformation of the economy

Ukraine’s prioritization of entry into the European digital market as a foreign policy direction highlights the urgency of incorporating the global digital economy and society index (DESI) into the national statistical monitoring system. The article asserts that DESI introduction is a pressing issue. It was emphasized that although Ukraine has declared its integration into the EU's single digital market, the country is not currently participating in any international rating to assess the competitiveness of its digitalization progress. This is due to the absence of any strategic or conceptual documents that support the use of indices of the country's digital evolution. By not implementing new and improved tools for measuring digitalization as a factor of economic growth, Ukraine is severely limited in reflecting the use and impact of digital technologies, such as AI, data analytics, IoT, 3D print, automation and robots, Cloud, 5G mobile broadband, and blockchain, on the aggregate value added of different economic sectors. Currently, only the metric for determining the Digital Transformation Index of Ukraine's regions has been approved in Ukraine at the official level. However, this metric does not meet the requirements of Eurostat and therefore cannot be utilized for international comparison. It is imperative that the global Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI) metric is implemented in Ukraine's domestic practice. The constituent elements of DESI, which include connectivity, human capital, use of internet services, integration of digital technology, and digital public services, must be taken into consideration. Accordingly, an assessment was conducted to determine Ukraine's readiness for the implementation of DESI. It is justified that Ukraine's participation in the formation and presentation of information about the DESI index will allow not only to have an objective assessment of the country's place in global trends, but also to have extremely important information for international investors regarding Ukraine's confirmation of commitment to the principles of openness and transparency assumed by international obligations to enter the single digital market by harmonizing its statistical system with EU standards and practices.

Značaj Direktive 2019/1151 u procesu digitalizacije kompanijskog prava Evropske unije

With the rapid development of information and communication technologies in the EU, the establishment of the digital single market through the EU's strategy has allowed for fair market competition using the internet by both individuals (natural persons) and legal entities. However, regulatory disparities among EU member states have posed challenges for businesses engaged in cross-border activities within the EU's single market. There are big differences among member states in terms of the availability of internet tools that enable entrepreneurs and companies to communicate with competent bodies regarding issues related to their business. Furthermore, e-government services differ among member states. Some member states offer comprehensive user-friendly services entirely online, while others struggle to provide digital solutions at crucial stages of a company's life cycle. In certain EU member states, the establishment of a company or the submission of document and information amendments to the register are only allowed in person, or in person or electronically, while in some member states this can only be done electronically. Digitalization was supposed to simplify the procedures for establishing business entities and enable free business establishment at the EU level. The aim of this paper is to analyze the legislative framework at the EU level, which should facilitate business operations in the digital world and provide security to participants in the European single market, with a special focus on EU Directive 2019/1151.

ДОСЛІДЖЕННЯ РОЗВИТКУ ЦИФРОВОЇ ТРАНСФОРМАЦІЇ В УМОВАХ ЄВРОПЕЙСЬКОЇ ІНТЕГРАЦІЇ

The COVID-19 pandemic has created the need for businesses to quickly adapt in disrupted supply chains, respond promptly to market changes and consumer expectations, and ensure the efficiency of remote business operations. Digitalization emerged as a development direction that facilitated economic growth under these challenging conditions. By utilizing digital data as a resource for business and other activities, digitalization provided opportunities to increase productivity, meet consumer demands, and foster international development across various economic sectors. Digital transformation serves as the primary innovative driver for stimulating sustainable economic development in countries. It offers and implements a range of advanced technologies for organizing the production of modern goods and services, revitalizing markets, and expanding informational capabilities for businesses and organizations located in geographically remote areas or facing other barriers that hinder their information awareness. Effective digital transformation is achievable through international integration of countries. Therefore, this research study focuses on examining the development of digital transformation within the member countries of the European Union, with particular attention given to digital development programs in Ukraine. Specifically, the study concentrates on exploring the key strategies of the Digital Single Market and major budgetary programs of the European Union. It analyzes the trends in digital development in Europe from 2020 to 2022, examines the indicators of the digital economy in European Union countries and their digital development directions. Additionally, it evaluates the Digital Transformation Index and the indices of its main components calculated for Ukrainian regions in 2022. Based on the research findings, conclusions are drawn emphasizing the relevance of integration processes among countries to promote digital transformation development as a guarantee for sustainable international economic growth, including the economies of countries worldwide.

Особливості розвитку регіональних економічних систем на засадах цифровізації в умовах повоєнного відновлення

The study of the development of digitalization of regional economic systems in the context of military aggression and post-war recovery of territories is an urgent and important task for the State today. The European vector of digital technology development, which Ukraine has chosen and is implementing, despite the difficulties, has allowed to significantly improve the development of the digital sector in our country. A study of the state of digital transformation of the regions of Ukraine in the pre-war period was carried out using the Digital Transformation Index, which made it possible to identify the leading and outsider regions in the development of digital content and to identify the strengths and weaknesses for each region as part of the calculation of the relevant sub-indices. First of all, such innovations in digital technologies concern the public sector, which, based on the development of software products (such as Diia), has allowed society to significantly improve and speed up the processes of obtaining a certain list of public services online. Development of the software product Hromada 4.0. for local self-government bodies, has allowed the introduction of new digital technologies in them to ensure equal access of the population to the necessary public services. The main focus of this program is digital solutions to improve municipal governance, increase cybersecurity of data. The development of the «EU4Digital: Supporting the Digital Economy and Society in the Eastern Partnership» program has improved the lives of the population by stimulating economic growth, creating new jobs, supporting small and medium-sized businesses by taking advantage of the benefits of the EU Digital Single Market for Ukraine. The study of the development of digitalization of regional economic systems allowed to identify four areas of obstacles (institutional, infrastructural, ecosystem, and e-government) that hinder this development. Six directions for the development of regional economic systems on the basis of digitalization are proposed, which will increase access to public services for more segments of the population, that should simplify the procedure for obtaining such services and reduce the level of bureaucracy in our country.

ЦИФРОВА ТРАНСФОРМАЦІЯ БІЗНЕСУ І СУСПІЛЬСТВА: РОЛЬ ЦИФРОВИХ НАВИЧОК

The article examines the essence of the digital economy and digital transformation of business and society. It is shown that the level of digital literacy of the population has a huge impact on the development of the digital economy and the growth of sales of digital services. The role of digital infrastructure in the development of digital literacy and integration of business into the digital environment is revealed. The article analyzes the main driving forces of the development of the digital economy in Ukraine, such as Internet penetration, its speed and coverage, access of enterprises and the population to the Internet. The indicators of the use of information and communication technologies at enterprises are considered. Their role in the efficiency of business activity is substantiated. The volume of sales of enterprises through online channels was analyzed. The functionality of websites as the main trade and image tool was considered. Features and activity of using content management and social media are revealed. The level of use of big data, artificial intelligence, and cloud computing is shown. The level of digital skills of enterprise personnel was analyzed, in particular, the use of skilled labor of ICT specialists and their provision. The role of a high level of digital skills of personnel in the growth of business efficiency and integration into the EU Digital Single Market is substantiated. The main initiatives of the EU, aimed at overcoming the digital gap in society and increasing the digital literacy of the population have been studied. The main goals of the EU in overcoming the digital divide and improving the digital skills of the population are named. The level of digital skills of Ukrainians is shown. The main strategic initiatives of Ukraine and digital projects of the Ministry of Digital Transformation to increase the level of digital literacy of the population are considered. It has been considered that the acceleration of the processes of digitization of the economy of Ukraine provides business with additional competitive advantages and opportunities. It has been proven that in order to achieve a synergistic effect from the processes of digital transformation of the state, business and society, a systematic increase in the level of digital literacy of the population and enterprise specialists is necessary.

European artificial intelligence policy as digital single market making

Rapid innovation in digital services relying on artificial intelligence (AI) challenges existing regulations across a wide array of policy fields. The European Union (EU) has pursued a position as global leader on ethical AI regulation in explicit contrast to US laissez-faire and Chinese state surveillance approaches. This article asks how the seemingly heterogeneous approaches of market making and ethical AI are woven together at a deeper level in EU regulation. Combining quantitative analysis of all official EU documents on AI with in-depth reading of key reports, communications, and legislative corpora, we demonstrate that single market integration constitutes a fundamental but overlooked engine and structuring principle of new AI regulation. Under the influence of this principle, removing barriers to competition and the free flow of data, on the one hand, and securing ethical and responsible AI, on the other hand, are seen as compatible and even mutually reinforcing.