Similipal Biosphere Reserve Research Articles

Predicting forest fire probability in Similipal Biosphere Reserve (India) using Sentinel-2 MSI data and machine learning

The global escalation in forest fires, characterized by increasing frequency and severity, results from a complex interplay of natural and anthropogenic factors, exacerbated by climate change. These fires devastate habitats, threaten species, reduce biodiversity, disrupt natural cycles, and harm local ecosystems. The impacts are particularly damaging in biological reserves. The Similipal Biosphere Reserve (SBR) in Odisha State is one of India’s major forest fire hotspots, experiencing forest fires almost every year. The objective of this study is to develop a predictive model using Sentinel-2 MSI data and machine learning (ML) techniques to estimate the probability of forest fires in the SBR, India, thereby enhancing disaster management and prevention in the region. This research maps and quantifies forest fire intensity by leveraging ML algorithms, namely Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), Gradient Boosting Machine (GBM), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Random Forest (RF). To develop a Forest Fire Probability (FFP) map, twenty conditioning factors, along with pre- and post-fire Normalized Burn Ratio (NBR) and delta Normalized Burn Ratio (dNBR), were utilized. Furthermore, four statistical methods—Mean Absolute Error, Mean Square Error, Root Mean Square Error, and Overall Accuracy—were employed to analyze the FFP. The results were validated using the Area Under Curve (AUC) method. The analysis identifies 2021 as the year with the highest incidence of forest fires, accounting for 29.19% of the occurrences. Among the models, the GBM exhibits superior performance, highlighting its efficacy in handling large, multidimensional datasets. Predictive mapping suggests that approximately 1400–1500 km2, or 25–30% of the studied area, faces a high to very high risk of forest fires.

Brilliant green decolorization by dye decolorizing peroxidase producing bacterium, Achromobacter insolitus isolated from Forest soils of Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Odisha

Dye-decolorizing peroxidases (DyPs) are recently identified superfamily of heme-containing peroxidases which has received much attention for its potential application in dye decolourization. In the current research, six bacterial colonies (SDB1-6) showing lignolytic activity were isolated from forest soils of SBR using a minimal salt medium supplemented with alkali lignin and screened for DyP activity using brilliant green dye supplemented luria bertani agar medium. The highest DyP activity showing bacterium was identified using biochemical and 16SrRNA sequencing and was identified as Achromobacter insolitus. A. insolitus was found to be an efficient strain showing the highest DyP activity of 2.7 U/mL/ml at un-optimized condition. The RSM optimization was conducted to increase the DyP enzyme activity. A. insolitus demonstrated DyP activity of 6.20 U/mL/min with an increase of 2.29 times of enzyme activity in optimal condition of pH 7.0, temperature 25 °C, H2O2 concentration 0.1 mM, and time 24 h. The bacterium was further screened for dye decolorization taking crystal violet, methyl orange, methylene blue, brilliant green and methyl red dyes supplemented in LB medium. The bacterium showed maximum brilliant green degradation ability was analyzed using UV-Vis and FTIR analyses to characterize the degraded product. The highest brilliant green degradation activity of the A. insolitus in the present study could be exploited for bioremediation of brilliant green contaminated industrial effluents in a ecofriendly and cost effective way.

A comprehensive investigation on the effect of UHI in Baripada city using geo‐spatial technique and MLTHP model

AbstractAccording to the Times of India, Baripada city recorded the highest temperature in the world on April 14, 2023, at 43.5°C. It is located in the south‐west direction of the Similipal Biosphere Reserve. Observing the third highest temperature in the world, we are interested in finding out the reasons affecting climate change. This paper investigates the reasons for the temperature change in Baripada city and its surroundings by considering factors like Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Normalized Multi‐band Drought Index (NMDI), Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI), Normalized Difference Built‐up Index (NDBI), forest fires, rainfall patterns, wind patterns, and registration of motor vehicles. For this study, data has been collected from USGS (United States Geological Survey), NASA POWER, Forest Survey of India, ArcGIS Online, etc. The study of NDVI shows a significant relationship with the LST. Similarly, NMDI shows an abnormal change in the drought index from 0.092 in 1990 to 0.276 in 2022, and NDWI shows a continuous reduction of the water index of −0.382 in 1990 and −0.176 in 2010, followed by −0.212 in 2022. NDBI values show that the urban build‐up index is increased to an extent due to rapid urban settlements removing natural vegetation. The overall forest fire count found an abnormal rise in the Baripada region during 2011 and 2022 to 143 times. Focusing on all the above factors, an experimental study is finally carried out to confirm the rise in temperature using time‐series analysis and a multi‐layer locally tuned hidden layer perceptron (MLTHP) model to ensure the Times of India's report.

Optimization and purification of laccase activity from Mammaliicoccus sciuri isolated from the soils of Similipal, Odisha, India: a kinetics study of crystal violet dye decolorization

Four laccase-producing bacteria were found in soil samples from the Similipal Biosphere Reserve in Odisha, according to the current study. The isolates (SLCB1 to SLCB4) were evaluated for their laccase-producing ability in LB broth supplemented with guaiacol. The ABTS assay was performed to assess the laccase activity. The bacterium Mammaliicoccus sciuri shows the highest laccase activity i.e., 0.5125 U/L at the optimized conditions of pH 5.5, temperature 32.5 °C, ABTS concentration of 0.75 μl with an incubation time of 9 d. Laccase activity of M. sciuri grown in Sawdust was significantly increased in comparison to that in other agro wastes. The partially purified laccase enzyme after ammonium sulfate precipitation and dialysis showed a molecular weight of ∼58.5 kDa as determined by SDS-PAGE. A decolorization efficiency of 66.67% was recorded for the dye crystal violet after 1 h treatment with dialyzed laccase enzyme compared with phenol red, brilliant blue, and methylene blue.

Screening and optimization of Manganese peroxidase (MnP) production by Pseudoduganella violacea (SMB4), a bacterial isolate from Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Odisha and evaluation of Maillard reaction products degradation

The Maillard reaction products (Melanoidin) are major environmental pollutants of the distillery and fermentation industries. Manganese peroxidase (MnP) was found to be an efficient ligninolytic enzyme capable of degrading Maillard products. MnP can convert Mn2 ions in wood and soils to the more reactive Mn2+ ions. The current study aims to isolate MnP producing bacteria from Similipal Biosphere Reserve (SBR), Odisha, and determine its biodegradation ability towards millards products. In total 10 ligninolytic bacterial colonies were isolated from the soil sample of SBR and their MnP activity was screened using phenol red dye as an indicator. The isolate, SMB4 was found to be the most efficient MnP-producing bacterium showing the highest MnP activity of 3.89 U/ml/min in un-optimized conditions. The bacterium was identified as Pseudoduganella violacea based on morphological, biochemical and molecular characterization. MnP activity of SMB4 was optimized using response surface methodology. Under optimized conditions SMB4 showed MnP activity of 6.12 U/ml/min which is 1.57 times from un-optimized condition. The isolate SMB4 was found to show significant decolorization of maillards products up to 83.68 % at temperature 37 °C within 192 h of incubation. The degraded product was analyzed using UV–vis and FTIR analyses. The current investigation suggests that MnP produced by Pseudoduganella violacea may be successfully exploited for bioremediation purposes to degrade Maillard products.

Effects of Disturbance Regimes on Phytodiversity of Similipal Biosphere Reserve, India

Effects of Disturbance Regimes on Phytodiversity of Similipal Biosphere Reserve, India

Purified cellulase-mediated simultaneous sugar utilization by Bacillus albus isolated from Similipal, Odisha, India.

Among 24 isolated cellulolytic bacteria from Similipal Biosphere Reserve, the most efficient isolate was recognized as a strain of Bacillus albus. This strain of B. albus was evaluated for cellulase production and the cellulase activity was measured in submerged fermentation using substrate carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC). Different nutritional (carbon, nitrogen, and metal-ion sources) and physical variables (pH, temperature, substrate concentration, and incubation time) during the growth of B. albus were optimized to obtain maximum cellulase activity. The highest cellulase activity of 5.79 U/mL for B. albus was observed at pH 6.75, temperature 37.5°C, CMC concentration 8.5 g/L, and 42 h incubation time. Further, supplementation of glucose as a subsidiary carbon source, yeast extract, peptone as nitrogen sources, and MgSO4 and MnSO4 as metal-ion sources enhance the cellulase activity of B. albus. The purified enzyme was reported to have a molecular weight of ∼54 kDa as determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. A zymogram analysis evidenced the cellulase activity of the purified enzyme fractions obtained from diethylaminoethyl cellulose chromatography. The purified cellulase was reported to have an optimum pH and temperature of 7.0°C and 50°C, respectively with a capacity of retaining its 60% residual activity within pH 6.0-8.0 and temperature 30-40°C, respectively. The metal ions, K+ and Na+ were the activators, while Pb2+ and Hg2+ were the inhibitors for the purified cellulase. The purified cellulase showed Km and Vmax values of 0.38 M and 8.19 U/mL, respectively, in presence of the substrate CMC and also simultaneous consumption of both hexose and pentose sugars.

Taxonomic Enumeration of Subaerial Cyanobacterial Flora of Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Odisha, India

The Similipal biosphere is located in the Mayurbhanj district of Odisha, India, and is 2,750 km2 (1,060 sq mi) in size. The purpose of this research is to document the cyanobacteria collected from tree bark and rock surfaces at various collection sites of Similipal Biosphere Reserve. In the present study, a total of 25 cyanobacterial species under 15 genera, 12 families and 05 orders under division Cyanophyta was reported from different sites of Similipal biosphere reserve, Odisha. Out of 25 cyanobacterial species, 21 are first time recorded from the Similipal biosphere reserve such as Anabaena subcylindrical, Aphanothece microscopica, Calothrix clavatoides, Chroococcus minor, Chroococcus minutus, Chroococcidiopsiska shayi, Gloeocapsa punctata, Gloeothece palea, Hapalosiphon hibernicus, Nostoc piscinale, Oscillatoria subbrevis, Phormidium ambiguum, Phormidium aerugineo-caeruleum, Phormidium bulgaricum, Phormidium kolkwitzii, Phormidium retzii, Planktothrixclathrata, Planktothrix isothrix, Scytonema javanicum, Scytonema stuposum, Tolypothrix rechingeri.

Altitude specific leaf quality in the host plants of tasar silkworm Anthraea mylitta Drury (Lepidoptera, Saturniidae) in Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Odisha, India

Altitudinal variation and role of leaf nutrients in the host plants of tasar silkworm Anthraea mylitta Drury (Lepidoptera, Saturniidae) influences, the rearing, grainage and quantitative traits of tasar and in the quality of cocoon formed. The present works analysed the nutritional status of the tasar host plant leaves of asan (Terminalia tomentosa) and arjun (T. arjuna) collected from Kendujuani (508 m ASL), Mudrajodi (223 m ASL) and Kuliana (64 m ASL) in the district of Mayurbhanj, in Similipal Biosphre Reserve, Odisha. The study revealed that, nutritional value of asan leaves is better at a higher altitude (Kendujuani). The concentration of ascorbic acid in the leaves of asan and arjun was found higher in the leaves from Kendujuani.

Directive Strategies for Conservation and Threat Mitigation in Similipal Biosphere Reserve

Biosphere Reserves (BR), the multipurpose protected areas with boundaries circumscribed by a legislative framework and are recognized as the 'laboratory for sustainable development'. Similipal Biosphere Reserve (SBR) in Odisha, one of the BRs in the eastern zone of India, has an array of habitats and ecosystems such as mountains, grasslands, wetlands, moist deciduous forests, and is rich in biological resources (e.g., flora and fauna), including some of the endemic species. The available reports, as acquired from the web-based search engine, reveal the presence of floral assemblage encompassing aquatic plants, bryophytes, algal diversity, lichens, edible fruits, medicinal plants; and the faunal richness inclusive of almost all the animal taxa, viz ., mammals, aves, reptiles, amphibia, pisces and a range of invertebrate species. Further, reports on traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) and ethnobotanical aspects from the SBR are also available. This article highlights, in brief, various ecological and socio-economical facets of SBR based on the available reports and scholarly literatures. Since most of the scientific explorations have been undertaken from an academic perspective, there is a need for intervention with a pluralistic approach for conservation of natural resources in the biosphere reserve. This article is an offshoot of an attempt to consolidate the existing reports/literature on the SBR and prioritize management interventions to mitigate the threats. Further, to facilitate an efficient, comprehensive management plan, a way forward, by identifying and integrating broad aspects for conservation, is presented that is applicable for SBR and all PAs of the country in general

Directive Strategies for Conservation and Threat Mitigation in Similipal Biosphere Reserve

Biosphere Reserves (BR), the multipurpose protected areas with boundaries circumscribed by a legislative framework and are recognized as the 'laboratory for sustainable development'. Similipal Biosphere Reserve (SBR) in Odisha, one of the BRs in the eastern zone of India, has an array of habitats and ecosystems such as mountains, grasslands, wetlands, moist deciduous forests, and is rich in biological resources (e.g., flora and fauna), including some of the endemic species. The available reports, as acquired from the web-based search engine, reveal the presence of floral assemblage encompassing aquatic plants, bryophytes, algal diversity, lichens, edible fruits, medicinal plants; and the faunal richness inclusive of almost all the animal taxa, viz ., mammals, aves, reptiles, amphibia, pisces and a range of invertebrate species. Further, reports on traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) and ethnobotanical aspects from the SBR are also available. This article highlights, in brief, various ecological and socio-economical facets of SBR based on the available reports and scholarly literatures. Since most of the scientific explorations have been undertaken from an academic perspective, there is a need for intervention with a pluralistic approach for conservation of natural resources in the biosphere reserve. This article is an offshoot of an attempt to consolidate the existing reports/literature on the SBR and prioritize management interventions to mitigate the threats. Further, to facilitate an efficient, comprehensive management plan, a way forward, by identifying and integrating broad aspects for conservation, is presented that is applicable for SBR and all PAs of the country in general

Quantitative estimation of reclamation status of a dry secondary forest using “measure of climax”: A novel approach

Determination of reclamation status of secondary forests is particularly urgent in human impacted landscapes for conservation of biodiversity and other ecosystem services. However, there is a lack of a quantitative method to estimate the recovery status of secondary forest globally. In the present work, the authors have attempted to estimate the recovery status of a dry secondary forest of Similipal Biosphere Reserve (SBR), India quantitatively with a nearby primary forest. We have formulated an equation (measure of climax stage) to estimate the secondary forest for its possible climax stage (early climax stage/mid climax stage/stable climax stage/non climax stage) based on species richness. For this study, the value of “measure of climax stage” between 0 and 0.2 is considered as stable climax stage, 0.2–0.6 as mid climax stage and 0.6–1 as early climax stage. On the other hand, the value >1 was considered as a non-climax stage of the forest. Accordingly, the studied secondary forest was estimated as to be in mid climax stage (measure of climax stage = 0.4230) even after c. 25 years of successional stage. We have also estimated the recovery stage of a secondary dry forest in SBR by fitting it with a suitable equation and found that the time frame for the stable climax stage is more than 50 years. ANOVA analysis indicates that there is no significant difference observed in the case of soil nutrient contents (except Electrical Conductivity) between primary and secondary forest sites. This developed equation may be implicated in the evaluation of reclamation status of secondary and degraded forest lands globally. Further, in-depth study is encouraged for the development of a modern climax concept to understand the ecological restoration process in a better way.

Forest fire susceptibility prediction using machine learning models with resampling algorithms, Northern part of Eastern Ghat Mountain range (India)

Periodic forest fires destruct to biodiversity, ecosystem productivity and multiple ecosystem services. Forest fires are currently turning a leading cause of forest degradation. The principal objective of this research is to predict forest fire vulnerable zones over Similipal biosphere reserve (SBR; Odisha) using different machine learning (ML) models, such as support vector machine (SVM), random forest (RF) and multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS). Different resampling methods (CV and bootstrap) have also been applied for optimizing the result and better accuracy. Results show that 10-fold cross validation (CV) technique performed best on SVM model (AUC = 0.83) whereas bootstrap performed best on RF (AUC = 0.80) and MARS model (AUC= 0.84). The main advantage of MARS model is that it only uses input variable and significantly increases the performance of the model. The novelty of this research is application of various ML algorithms through resampling techniques to reduce the biasness and improves the reliability of the models.

Eria meghasaniensis (S. Misra) S. Misra, an endemic and endangered orchid of Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Odisha, India

In the state of Odisha, 139 species of orchids have been reported, of these 94 species are from Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Odisha, India. The population of the orchid Eria meghasaniensis (S. Misra) S. Misra, was located and thoroughly studied from the hills of Meghasani and Kahairiburu of Similipal Biosphere Reserve. It was found that the average height of the plants ranged from 7-15 cm. The light intensity available for each plant habitat was recorded during the month of November and ranged from 8000 to 10000 LUX. The phorophytic plants of E.meghasaniensis were Syzygiumnervosum A.Cunn. ex DC., Syzygiumcumini (L.) Skeels, Homaliumnepaulense Benth. and Careyaarborea Roxb. However, most of the species (more than 80%) was associated with Syzygiumnervosum A. Cunn. ex DC.While analyzing the populations of E. meghasaniensis (S. Misra) S. Misra, it was found that the populations spread over an area of 4 Sq. Km. only with an elevation ranging from 1000 to 1170 meter. There is no suitable mycorrhiza for seed germination. In vitro seed germination should be attempted for conservation of this orchid species.

Anthropogenic interventions regulate forest structure and carbon stock in transitional dry forests of Similipal Biosphere Reserve, India

ABSTRACT Tropical dry forests play an important role in the storing of significant amounts of biomass and carbon. However, carbon storage in these forests is linked to biotic, edaphic and climatic factors as well as human interventions. The forest structure and carbon storage in relation to human interventions and soil properties were studied in tropical dry forest patches located in a transition region of the Similipal Biosphere Reserve, India. Random sampling of vegetation and soil was done in 30 plots of 50 × 20 m in size. A total of 41 adult tree species, 50 juvenile tree species and 28 climber species were recorded within the study area. The average carbon stock of the forest was 179.54 ± 9.56 Mg ha−1, of which adult trees were the highest contributors (55%) followed by soil organic carbon (36%), woody climbers (6%) and juvenile trees (3%). There was a significant effect of lopping, cutting of trees and soil properties on forest structure and carbon stock. This study confirms that anthropogenic disturbances and edaphic factors play a significant role in the variation of carbon stocks of biomass and soils in the forest.

Floristic diversity of climbing plants in tropical forests of Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Odisha, India

Climbers influence the diversity and composition of forest ecosystem immensely. We have investigated the floristic composition of climbing plants in tropical forests of Similipal Biosphere Reserve (SBR), Odisha, India. A total of 120 climber plant species belonging to 74 genera and 33 families were documented in all forests. Among families, the most speciose families were Fabaceae (25 species) and Convolvulaceae (22 species) followed by Cucurbitaceae (11 species), Vitaceae (8 species), Dioscoreaceae (7 species) etc. Similarly, dominant genera were Ipomoea possessing the highest number of species i.e., 9 species followed by Dioscorea (7 species), Vigna (6 species) and Cissus (4 species) etc. There was a remarkable difference noted in the structure and climbing mechanism of different climbers. The climbing plants diversity of SBR not only contributing to the overall forest biodiversity significantly but also maintain the ecological balance of the whole ecosystem. Climbers are the major resource of economic value in and around the biosphere reserve and thus their use and sustainable management must be given principal attention.

Antimicrobial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential of two dominant macro-lichen Dirinaria aegialita and Parmotrema praesorediosum collected from Similipal Biosphere Reserve of Odisha, India

Antimicrobial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential of two dominant macro-lichen Dirinaria aegialita and Parmotrema praesorediosum collected from Similipal Biosphere Reserve of Odisha, India

DIVERSITY, DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF LICHEN IN SIMILIPAL BIOSPHERE RESERVE, ODISHA

Lichens are organized symbionts that have their importance due to a potential indicator of the forest ecosystem. The lichen diversity of Odisha is not well explored as compared to the other phytogeographical region of India. Though the earlier study reported the occurrence of 252 lichen species from different parts of the state, it was limited to the northeast part of the Similipal Biosphere Reserve (SBR). The objective of the present study was to survey some unexplored areas of SBR, which revealed the occurrence of 84 species of lichens belonging to 38 families and 18 genera. Most of the lichens were found growing as phorophytes on the matured bark of the trees. The western part of the SBR is rich in lichen diversity as compared to the eastern part. Species frequency was found to be highest in the southwest part of the SBR, while the density and abundance were more or less similar within all the study sites. The correlation between frequency and density was found to be significant and insignificant between frequency and abundance.

ANTIMICROBIAL POTENTIALS OF TWO FRESHWATER HETEROCYSTOUS CYANOBACTERIA WESTIELLOPSIS PROLIFICA AND NOSTOCHOPSIS LOBATUS COLLECTED FROM SIMILIPAL BIOSPHERE RESERVE, ODISHA, INDIA

The Similipal Biosphere Reserve, an unique ecosystem in the eastern part of India, occupy the northern boundary of Odisha state, lies between 21°28´ to 22°08´ North latitude and 86°04´ to 86°37´ East longitude, covering a vast area of 5578 sq. km in the district of Mayurbhanj. Westiellopsis prolifica and Nostochopsis lobatus, are a group of heterocystous, true branched, filamentous cyanobacteria belonging to the order Stigonematales, rarely found in the aquatic bodies of this region in the state of Odisha. In the present investigation, an attempt has been made to evaluate the antimicrobial potentials of Westiellopsis prolifica and Nostochopsis lobatus collected from flowing streams of Similipal Biosphere Reserve. The organisms were cultured in nitrogen free BG-11 medium and raised to axenic state. Crude metabolites were extracted from cultured test organisms in late log phase using organic solvents of different polarity viz. methanol and chloroform. The metabolites were tested against some clinically significant microorganisms including bacteria and fungi using agar cup diffusion method and the results of antimicrobial activity of cyanobacteria are summarized. The findings revealed that pattern of inhibition varied with respect to the cyanobacterial strains used, nature of solvent extracts and the pathogenic microorganisms tested. Westiellopsis prolifica was found to be more potent that inhibit all the pathogenic bacteria and fungi both in methanol and chloroform extract. This study illustrates that heterocystous cyanobacteria from freshwater bodies could be a potent source of antimicrobial agents and further characterization of active metabolites and evaluation of their pharmacological potentials are also needed.

Variation in structural diversity and regeneration potential of tree species in different tropical forest types of Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Eastern India

Understanding the regeneration potential of tree species in natural forest ecosystems is crucial to deliver suitable management practices for conservation of biodiversity. We studied the variation in structural diversity and regeneration potential of tree species in three different tropical forest types, namely: Dry Deciduous forest (DDF), Moist Deciduous forest (MDF) and Semi-evergreen forest (SEF) of Similipal Biosphere Reserve (SBR), Eastern India. Random sample plots were laid for studying the diversity and distribution pattern of tree, sapling, and seedling stages of the tree species. A total of 84 species belong to 73 genera and 35 families were recorded from the study area. The highest species richness was reported for tree (54 species) in DDF, sapling (24 species) in MDF and seedling (22 species each) in SEF and DDF. The overall density of trees with GBH (Girth at Breast Height) ≥ 10 cm was 881 individuals/ha. The regeneration potential of tree species was poor in DDF (39%) where as it was fair in SEF (43%) and MDF (49%). Most of the dominant tree species at each forest type performed good regeneration. The species such as Ehretia laevis Roxb., Bridelia retusa (L.)A.Juss., Mitragyna parviflora (Roxb.) Korth., Terminalia tomentosa Wight & Arn., Terminalia chebula Retz., Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.etc. had either no regeneration or poor regeneration potential need immediate attention for conservation measures. The diversity of standing trees did not correlate with seedling or sapling diversity in all the cases but there was significant correlation among seedling and sapling diversity found in DDF (r = 0.67, p ≤ 0.05) and SEF (r = 0.83, p ≤ 0.05). Further, the diversity of tree species increased with their age (trees > saplings > seedlings) and the stem density decreased with their age (trees < saplings < seedlings) in all three forest types. The results of our study would be helpful in understanding the structural attributes, diversity and regeneration potential of different tropical forest types of India for their better conservation and management.