The article is based on material collected during the PhD project on hydrothermal mineralisation in the Polish Tatra Mountains, linked to historic copper and silver mining. The study focuses on the Polish part of the Western Tatras, where numerous signs of past mining activities have been identified, described, and documented. Five preserved features, four adits, and a large heap with a collapsed shaft crater were discovered. Mineralogical and geochemical analyses indicated that the primary components of the ore veins are tetrahedrite-( Zn) and tetrahedrite-(Fe), occurring as intergrowths with chalcopyrite, and less frequently with pyrite and galena. Fluid inclusion studies showed low homogenisation temperatures and low salinity of the mineralising fluids. Eutectic temperature measurements demonstrate that the inclusions represent H₂O–NaCl solutions with a minor KCl component. The sequence of hydrothermal mineral formation in the Western Tatras is reconstructed as: carbonates I → quartz I → barite I → quartz II + carbonates II + ore minerals + barite II → supergene mineralisation. The mineralisation in the Polish Tatra Mountains is classified as dolomite/siderite–quartz type with tetrahedrite. Additionally, evidence for a quartz–carbonate stage with copper sulphides was documented.

Silver polymetallic deposits commonly produce high-grade ores, with silver contents reaching up to weight-percent levels. The reason and mechanism for the formation of such high-grade silver ores, however, remain poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that superimposed mineralization plays a crucial role in forming high-grade silver ores in the Poshan Ag-Pb-Zn deposit in Central China. The Early Cretaceous Ag-Pb-Zn mineralization at Poshan occurs as quartz-carbonate-sulfide veins that generally contain a few hundred micrograms per gram of silver. In contrast, the high-grade silver mineralization is present as calcite−chlorite−acanthite−native silver veinlets infilling fractures of the Early Cretaceous orebodies, with silver contents ranging from thousands of micrograms per gram to weight-percent levels. Uranium-lead dating of hydrothermal calcite in the high-grade ores indicates that the enrichment of silver at Poshan occurred in the Late Miocene, specifically between 8.55 ± 0.26 Ma and 6.78 ± 0.13 Ma. Oxygen isotope analysis of individual calcite generations (Cal-1 to Cal-4), which are texturally associated with acanthite, suggests that the fluids from which silver precipitated have δ18Ofluid values of −2.5‰ to −0.4‰ (mean −1.5‰; Cal-1), −2.5‰ to +2.7‰ (mean +1.1‰; Cal-2), −3.4‰ to +1.7‰ (mean −0.2‰; Cal-3), and +4.9‰ to +6.7‰ (mean +5.8‰; Cal-4), respectively. Fluctuations in oxygen isotopes, along with the variations of the element molar ratios (Fe/Ca, Mn/Ca, and Mg/Ca) of corresponding calcite generations, suggest that fluid mixing expressed by the episodic incorporation of deep-circulating fluids into meteoric water triggered changes in fluid composition and ambient conditions, ultimately leading to metal precipitation. Acanthite and coexisting base metal sulfides show δ34S values ranging from −41.7‰ to −6.5‰, which are significantly different from the magmatic-like sulfur of the Early Cretaceous sulfides. These values suggest that an external sulfur, likely derived from bacterial sulfate reduction, was involved in the high-grade silver mineralization. This study highlights the crucial role of superimposed mineralization in the formation of bonanza silver veins in the Poshan deposit and potentially those of silver polymetallic deposits with analogous geological settings worldwide.

Use of mercury in mining 125years ago continues to impact waterfowl populations: Implications for current artisanal gold mining.

The underground forest: Tracing forest history in the Erzgebirge through the wood finds from the medieval silver mines of Dippoldiswalde

Crystallizing bacterial extracellular protein reveals paths of silver mineralization for recovery

IntroductionIn the frame of the RadoNorm project, within work package 5.4, an intercomparison of radon and radon progeny measurements was organized in the Historic Silver Mine in Tarnowskie Gory (Poland). The aim of this intercomparison campaign was to compare the results of different electronic monitors for measurement of radon and radon progeny concentration under field conditions of an underground workplace over 3 days of measurements.MethodsIn total, nine laboratories from seven European countries participated in the intercomparison study contributing with sixteen continuous radon monitors, ten radon progeny continuous monitors, and one TLD-based integrating system for PAEC measurements.ResultsDespite the short duration of the field campaign, the comparison of radon activity concentration measurements showed strong consistency across most instruments, although notable deviations were observed with three instruments. Radon equivalent equilibrium concentration measurements also demonstrated good agreement, with only one outlier among ten instruments. Comparison of short term averages of EEC (PAEC) obtained from continuous monitors and integral TLD based Alpha probes showed good agreement. Greater variability was observed in the results for unattached radon progeny.DiscussionThis intercomparison also allowed of testing instrument's responses in extreme ambient conditions with high humidity and relatively low temperature that are at the edge of the instrument's operating conditions.

A century of tailings migration from silver mining reduced biodiversity in a Boreal Shield lake.

A 3D model integrating mineralogical, petrological, and geostatistical resource estimation was developed for Zone C of the Kofi Birimian gold deposit in Western Mali. Petrographic analysis identified two forms of gold mineralization: (i) native gold or electrum inclusions within pyrite, and (ii) disseminated native gold along pyrite fractures. Four types of hydrothermal alteration–epidotization, chloritization, carbonatization, and albitization were observed microscopically. Statistical analysis of geochemical data classified five lithologies: mafic dyke, felsic dyke, diabase, faulted breccia, and intermediate quartz diorite. Minerals identified petrographically were corroborated by multivariate correlations among elements (Cr, Fe, Ni, Al, Ti, Na, and Ca), as revealed by Principal Component Analysis (PCA). A 3D borehole-based model revealed spatial correlations between hydrothermal alteration zones and associated geochemical anomalies, notably tourmalinization (B) and albitization (Na), with the latter serving as a key indicator for new exploration targets. The spatial associations of anomalous Ag, B, Hg, As, and Na commonly linked to tourmalinization suggest favorable zones for gold and silver mineralization. Geostatistical analysis identified isotropic continuous mineralized structures for most elements, including gold. Spherical isotropic variograms with ranges from 35 to 75 m were fitted for in situ resource estimation (e.g., silver ≈ 40 m; gold ≈ 60 m). The resulting estimated resources (indicated + inferred), based on a 1.0 g/t Au cut-off, are 2.476 Mt at 3.5 g/t Au indicated (0.278 Moz or 8.67 t), and 1.254 Mt at 2.78 g/t Au inferred (0.112 Moz or 3.49 t). This study provides a framework for identifying new mineralized zones, and the multidisciplinary approach demonstrates the connections between mineralogy and the information embedded in geochemical datasets, which are revealed through appropriate tools and an understanding of the underlying processes.

ABSTRACT In the Andes, most archaeological research on road networks has focused on specific historical contexts, like the famous Qhapaq ñan, with relatively little work done to understand the long-term dynamics of these networks. Here, we present a case study on the history of movement networks in the Lauca Altiplano, an upland desert of the south-central Andes that has preserved a dense concentration of ancient infrastructure and traces of movement related to great historical routes, such as the one connecting the famous Potosí silver mines. The results of a multi-scale approach combining road network data from historical maps, satellite photo interpretation, and field survey with topographic and stratigraphic data at way station settlement (tambo) sites, demonstrate the great resilience of the road network until the recent modernization of Andean territories and that the Inca and Spanish Empires did not invest significantly in the transportation system, which was largely managed by indigenous actors.

Abstract The high-grade stratabound copper ores of the Central European Kupferschiefer are one of the world’s most important sources of silver. Despite its economic significance, the mineralogical partitioning of silver within the Kupferschiefer ores is generally not well understood, other than the fact that silver minerals are not sufficiently abundant to account for the bulk of the silver content. This study provides the first fully quantitative silver deportment for Kupferschiefer-type ores, using the Spremberg-Graustein-Schleife project in Germany as a case study. Our comprehensive analytical approach integrates scanning electron microscope (SEM)-based automated mineralogy and electron probe micro-analysis (EPMA) on exploration drill-core samples collected from different host rocks and different metal tenor. The results were validated using bulk geochemical data, and uncertainties were assessed with Monte Carlo simulations. The results demonstrate that the majority of the silver within high-grade Cu-rich ores occurs as a trace constituent in the ore-forming Cu(-Fe) sulfides (chalcocite group minerals, covellite, bornite, and chalcopyrite). In samples containing little copper, however, Fe sulfides host the majority of the silver in the form of micro-inclusions within copper-enriched crystal growth zones and substitution within the crystal lattice. The close association of copper and silver has important implications for ore genesis and mineral processing. These implications may well transfer to other by-products and other examples of polymetallic sediment-hosted copper mineral systems.

Argentopearceite, Ag₁₆As₂S₁₁, a new silver mineral from the Mikulov and Moldava deposits, (Czech Republic)

The Erentaolegai silver deposit is located within the Derbugan metallogenic belt in the eastern segment of the Central Asia–Mongolia giant orogenic belt. The ore bodies are primarily hosted in the volcanic rocks of the Middle Jurassic Tamulangou Formation of the Mesozoic. The mineralization process of the deposit is divided into three stages: Stage I: Pyrite–Quartz Stage; Stage II: Sulfide–Quartz Stage; Stage III: Quartz–Manganese Carbonate Stage. This paper discusses the ore-forming fluids, ore-forming materials, and deposit genesis of the Erentaolegai silver deposits using fluid inclusions microthermometry, laser Raman spectroscopy, and H-O-S isotope analyses. Fluid inclusion microthermometry and laser Raman spectroscopy analyses indicate that the Erentaolegai silver deposit contains exclusively fluid-rich two-phase fluid inclusions, all of which belong to the H2O-NaCl system. Homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions in the three stages (from early to late) ranged from 257 to 311 °C, 228 to 280 °C, and 194 to 238 °C, corresponding to salinities of 1.91 to 7.86 wt%, 2.07 to 5.41 wt%, and 0.70–3.55 wt% NaCl equivalent, densities of 0.75 to 0.83 g/cm−3, 0.80 to 0.86 g/cm−3 and 0.85 to 0.89 g/cm−3. The mineralization pressure ranged from 12.2 to 29.5 MPa, and the mineralization depth was 0.41 to 0.98 km, indicating low-pressure and shallow-depth mineralization conditions. H-O isotope results indicate that the ore-forming fluid is a mixture of magmatic fluids and meteoric water, with meteoric contribution dominating in the late stage. The δ34S values of metallic sulfides ranged from −1.8 to +4.0‰, indicating that the metallogenic material of the Erentaolegai silver deposit was dominated by a deep magmatic source. This study concludes that meteoric water mixing and subsequent fluid cooling served as the primary mechanism for silver mineral precipitation. The Erentaolegai silver deposit is classified as a low-sulfidation epithermal silver deposit.

The paper presents a retrospective analysis of copper smelting and precious metals mining in countries around the world, including Russia, fr om 1960 to 2023. The analysis of the immediate development prospects of these metallurgical industries is provided, including the latest data on the availability of economically accessible fossil reserves. It was established that over the past 60 years, copper smelting increased 6-fold, silver mining increased 3-fold, and gold mining doubled. Platinum mining increased by 30% compared to the year 1990. If in 1960 the United States (copper) and South Africa (gold) dominated the metal producer structure, by now China has become the undisputed leader. Mexico retained its first place in silver mining (China ranks second), and South Africa in platinum mining. Based on the current available reserves of minerals, the mining of which is economically justified, the current volumes of copper production can be maintained for the next four decades, gold and silver for 20 years, and platinum for about 400 years. Thus, in the coming decades, a gradually increasing deficit of precious metals (except for platinum group metals) is expected, which may lead to an uncontrolled increase in their prices. In the long term, a similar situation is expected with copper, wh ere the level of reserves, the mining of which is economically justified, is limited to 40 years, and the share of secondary copper smelting (from scrap) does not exceed 20% of the total volume of refined metal production. In general, in the next 40 years, no deficit is expected only for platinum group metals.

Late in the sixth century BCE, the ancient Athenians overthrew the previous tyrant rulers and adopted a new democratic form of government militarily establishing themselves as a regional power. They constructed a fleet which played a crucial role in defeating the Persian invasion of 480/79 BCE and led to their creation of a naval-based empire. A key funding source for the ships was silver from the domestic mines at Lavrion situated in the south-east corner of Attica (Hdt. 7.144; Ath. Pol. 22.7). The current consensus based on earlier metal analysis is that the Athenians must have found and exploited the rich, so-called ‘third contact’ silver mines in 520–515 BCE, a discovery that led to the introduction of the larger tetradrachm monetary unit (Kraay, 1956) and the iconic ‘owl’ coin ‘type’ (Picard, 2001) as a branded medium for exporting silver. Here, we present new lead isotopic and elemental abundance data for 52 archaic Athenian owls (pre-479 BCE) combined with previously published legacy data for 12 other owls. The results show that only a small proportion of the coins were wholly struck from Lavrion ore or other discrete sources while most of the coins were struck from Lavrion ore mixed with ore from a single or homogeneous, geologically older source. Crucially, this was not the multitude of external sources used for the preceding Wappenmünzen series. We deduce that the discovery of the third contact only occurred shortly before 483/2 BCE, precisely as claimed in the literary sources, at which point Lavrion silver came to represent the bulk of the supply. This forces a reappraisal of the current paradigm since it seems that there was no abrupt and complete change of ore source to Lavrion, and therefore this cannot be connected with the introduction of the owl coin type. It also impacts our understanding of the very low gold content of Athenian owls compared with the earlier Wappenmünzen series, which should be attributed to the replacement of ore sources.

Sustainable urban mining of silver with fatty acids

Abstract From the late 16th century to early 18th, silver mining was the economic engine of empire in the Andes, playing a significant role in Spain’s European ambitions and the forging of global trade. Yet this productivity came at a terrible cost for Andean people forced to work in the mines, and colonial critics forcefully debated the morality and legality of the mining economy even as it became essential to the colonial project itself. More than any others, the mercury mines of Huancavelica, Peru became synonymous with this conflict between the human toll of colonial exploitation and immense mineral wealth of the Andes. As the only Andean source of the mercury required to refine silver and a mine infamous for its toxic conditions, Huancavelica became a crucial source of debate over the conditions in which the Spanish Empire could and should employ forced labor. Royal officials attempted to soothe pious critics, maintain mercury production, and preserve the Andean labor force while Spanish miners and Andean communities vied for their own interests. This article examines conflicts over nocturnal labor to shed light on these dynamics, challenging simplistic understandings of labor relations at the mines where Andeans actively advocated for themselves, miners challenged royal policy, and even seemingly favorable conditions failed to yield tangible reforms.

This paper presents the results of a two-year radon risk study conducted at the Historic Silver Mine in Tarnowskie Góry. During this period, continuous measurements of radon activity concentration were carried out in three-month cycles at 30 points distributed along the tourist route. The average radon activity concentration was 1160 Bq/m3 for the first year of measurements and 1210 Bq/m3 in the second year. Based on the collected data, seasonal correction factors considering seasonal variations in radon activity concentration (SCF) were determined. The obtained factors are in the range of 0.8–1.4. In addition, the spatial variation of radon activity concentration was studied at selected locations of the mine at different heights of the location of the detectors and their distribution on opposite sides of the excavation. Based on the collected data, effective doses were calculated. Assuming annual working time of 300 h, which was specified for workers, the average annual dose is 0.6 and 1.3 mSv for the conversion factor of 1.4 mSv/(mJ/m3⋅h) indicated in Polish law and 3.1 mSv/(mJ/m3⋅h) as recommended in the ICRP report no 137 for underground mines respectively. For the annual working time of 1800 h, the corresponding doses would be 3.4 mSv and 7.4 mSv.

ABSTRACT The Kütahya Silver Mine, located in the Felent Stream Basin, stands as Türkiye’s silver production site. Additionally, thermal tourism facilities in the upstream region are also degrading water quality of Felent Stream. This study meticulously examined the levels and spatial-temporal variations of 18 potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in the sediments of the Felent Stream Basin and evaluated their ecotoxicological risks during dry and wet seasons. The average sediments contamination levels of PTEs were ranked as follows: Fe > Al > Zn > Mn > Sr > Pb > Ba > Ni > Cu > As > Cr > Li > V > Cd > Co > Sb > Se > Hg. Remarkably, during the wet season, sediment samples revealed an approximate threefold surge in the average concentrations of PTEs. Ecological risk assessment indicators highlighted that the basin experienced low pollution levels in the dry season, escalating to moderate pollution levels during the wet season. Non-carcinogenic risks for studied PTEs and carcinogenic risks for As remained below the threshold values in both seasons. Statistical analyses pinpointed the Yoncalı District, a prominent thermal tourism area, as the primary contributor to the sediment contamination of the Felent Stream Basin. The Enne Dam Lake, the region’s main stagnant water body, emerged as the least contaminated component, functioning as a natural filter for the basin and significantly mitigating the levels of PTEs in the sediment.

In historic mining towns, where mining activities were abandoned many decades or even centuries ago, legacy contaminations can be remobilized and redispersed, representing a threat for the environment and human health. This study focuses on urban soils (n = 19) in the town of Jihlava, the Czech Republic, one of the medieval centers of silver mining in central Europe. The basic geochemical characterization of the soils was combined with mineralogical investigations to understand the solid speciation of the metal(loid) contaminants, oral bioaccessibility tests, and exposure assessment. The total concentrations of the metal(loid)s in the original soils were not excessively high (up to 45.8 mg As/kg, 19.2 mg Cd/kg; 205 mg Cr/kg; 91.8 mg Cu/kg, 163 mg Pb/kg, 253 mg V/kg, 262 mg Zn/kg), although, in some cases, they exceeded the regulatory guidelines for agricultural and/or residential soils. A substantial increase in the metal(loid)s contents was confirmed for the < 48-µm soil fraction that was later used for the bioaccessibility tests. Scanning electron microscopy and the electron microprobe showed that ore-derived primary sulfides were rare in the studied soils. Still, hydrous ferric oxides rich in Cu, Pb and Zn and fragments of metallurgical slags composed of metal-containing glass and silicates (olivine) were prone to dissolution during extraction in a simulated gastric fluid (SGF, glycine solution acidified to pH 1.5 by HCl). The maximum bioaccessible concentrations corresponded to 4.69 mg As/kg, 1.75 mg Cd/kg, 2.02 mg Cr/kg, 20.3 mg Cu/kg, 81.6 mg Pb/kg, 16.2 mg V/kg, and 233 mg Zn/kg. Exposure estimates were carried out for children (10 kg) as a target group and a conservative soil ingestion rate (100 mg/d). However, the daily intake of all the studied contaminants was far below the tolerable limits. Our results show that the human health risk based on incidental soil ingestion in the studied area seems limited.

Mobility of cobalt in mine waste: Evidence from a historic silver mining district in Canada