Short-term Waterlogging Research Articles

Waterlogging Tolerance of Kentucky Bluegrass Cultivars

Waterlogging (WL) affects the growth and physiological responses of turfgrass. The objectives of this study were to compare the relative WL tolerance of Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) cultivars and to investigate the physiological responses of shoots and roots to WL. Ten cultivars differing in growth habit were subjected to 30 d of WL. The turf quality (TQ) and soil redox potential (Eh), as well as the chlorophyll concentration (Chl), decreased with increasing periods of WL. Among all cultivars, root dry weight (RDW) decreased 16.7% to 39.9% under 10 d and 30.0% to 60% under 30 d of WL, respectively. Waterlogging increased the root electrolyte leakage (REL) from 0.6% to 53.2% under 10 d and from 29.1% to 98.0% under 30 d of WL for all cultivars, respectively. The best correlations were observed between Eh and TQ (r = 0.74), REL and TQ (r = 0.75), RDW and root water-soluble carbohydrate content (RWSC) (r = 0.74), and root oxidase activity and RWSC (r = 0.63), respectively. ‘Moonlight’, ‘Serene’, and ‘Champagne’ showed better tolerance to short-term WL conditions, whereas ‘Kenblue’ and ‘Eagleton’ were the least tolerant cultivars. ‘Limousine’, ‘Unique’, ‘Awesome’, ‘Julia’, and ‘Midnight II’ ranked in the middle group. Variations in WL tolerance among Kentucky bluegrasses could potentially be used for enhancing turfgrass management.

Responses to short-term waterlogging during grain filling in sunflower

Higher than normal rainfall during grain filling of sunflower ( Helianthus annuus L.) has been shown to be associated with reductions in grain yield. This yield loss has been variously attributed to low radiation (cloudy weather) or to the increased incidence of diseases. Impaired physiological processes directly linked to transient waterlogging arising from excess rainfall could also reduce yield. The aim of this work was to evaluate the existence and nature of physiological responses to waterlogging in sunflower. Four experiments were conducted during the 1999–2000, 2000–2001, 2002–2003 and 2003–2004 seasons (Experiments 1–4), using plants of the hybrid Paraíso 20 grown under non-limiting conditions in 30 L pots arrayed as a crop. Waterloggings of 24 or 48 h duration were applied in each of three separate occasions (Experiments 1 and 2) or for several days on a single occasion (Experiments 3 and 4) during grain filling. Leaf area dynamics were followed from anthesis to physiological maturity and grain yield and its components were measured in all four experiments. In Experiment 3 two different soil mixtures were used and leaf photosynthesis was measured during and after waterlogging. In Experiment 4 the response of shaded plants to waterlogging was studied. Rate of oxygen diffusion in the rooting substrate, leaf water potential and leaf wilting were measured during and after waterlogging. Root density during grain filling and stem plus petiole biomass at physiological maturity were also measured in this experiment. Across these experiments grain yield was reduced by 5–60% ( p < 0.05), depending on the timing of waterlogging and the characteristics of the root substrate; these effects were largely attributable to lower grain weight and associated with lower leaf area duration, and reduced photosynthesis of the remaining leaves. These effects were partially counteracted by increased losses of stem plus petiole biomass during grain filling, resulting in increased harvest index. Leaf water potential and oxygen diffusion rate fell rapidly once waterlogging was imposed and were only restored 4–9 days after termination of waterlogging, and post-anthesis rate of root biomass loss was increased. We conclude that waterlogging during grain filling determines direct physiological responses that decrease grain yield. These responses, modulated by the environmental conditions prevailing during and after waterlogging, include negative effects on plant leaf area, leaf capacity to fix carbon, and plant capacity to absorb water.

Effect of Waterlogged and Aerobic Incubation on Enzyme Activities in Paddy Soil

ABSTRACT An incubation experiment with soil water content treatments of 0.15 (W1), 0.20 (W2), and 0.40 (W3) g g−1 soil was carried out for two months to investigate the activities of important enzymes involved in C, N, P, and S cycling in a paddy soil from the Taihu Lake region, China, under waterlogged and aerobic conditions. Compared with air-dried soil, waterlogging resulted in a significant decrease (P ≤ 0.05) of fluorescein diacetate (FDA) and β-D-glucosidase activities, and this effect was enhanced with increasing waterlogging time. Waterlogging also significantly inhibited (P ≤ 0.05) arylsulfatase as well as alkaline and acid phosphatase activities, but did not decrease the activities with the increase in waterlogging time. Short-term waterlogging did not affect urease activity, but prolonged waterlogging decreased it markedly. In contrast, the aerobic incubation (W1 and W2 treatments) significantly increased (P ≤ 0.05) FDA, alkaline phosphatase, and β-D-glucosidase activities. With aerobic treatments the activities of FDA and alkaline phosphatase increased with incubation time, whereas β-D-glucosidase activity decreased. A significant difference (P ≤ 0.05) was usually observed between the W1 and W2 treatments for the activities of FDA as well as alkaline and acid phosphatase; however, β-D-glucosidase and urease were usually not significant (P ≤ 0.05). No activity differences were observed between waterlogging and aerobic incubation for arylsulfatase and urease.

Effects of Waterlogging at Vegetative and Reproductive Growth Stages on Photosynthesis, Leaf Water Potential and Yield in Mungbean

The effects of short-term waterlogging on mungbean and recovery from the damage were studied in a plastic greenhouse. Pot-grown plants of two mungbean cultivars, KPS1 and CNXP-49 were waterlogged for eight days, at the vegetative and reproductive growth stages. Photosynthetic rate (P), transpiration rate (Tr), diffusive resistance (rs) and leaf water potential (Ψl) were measured at the 1st, 4th and 8th day of the 8-day waterlogging treatment and at the 4th and 8th day after the end of waterlogging. P was reduced significantly by waterlogging. It was reduced by 58 and 64% at the 8th day of waterlogging at the vegetative and reproductive stages, respectively, in KPS1 and, by 76 and 82%, respectively, in CNXP-49. Tr was reduced by 48 and 66% in KPS1 and CNXP-49 respectively, at the 8th day of waterlogging at both stages. The diffusive resistance at the 8th day of waterlogging was increased by 79 and 83%, in KPS1 and CNXP-49, respectively, at the vegetative stage, and by 76 and 79% at the reproductive stage. All these physiological parameters of both cultivars recovered to almost normal values within 4 days after the end of waterlogging at the reproductive stage and within 8 days at the vegetative stage. Waterlogging did not affect Ψl, indicating that the decrease in P and Tr was not associated with leaf dehydration. Waterlogging at the vegetative and reproductive stages significantly reduced the dry matter accumulation during and after the waterlogging in both KPS1 and CNXP-49. Final seed yield in KPS1 and CNXP-49 was reduced by 16 and 19%, respectively, by the waterlogging at the vegetative stage and by 23 and 30%, respectively, by that at the reproductive stage. Although even short-term waterlogging markedly affected P, Tr and rs of mungbean, the damage particularly in P and leaf growth was quickly recovered after the end of waterlogging and the reduction of seed yield was less than that expected from the damage in the physiological characteristics. These results, suggest that mungbean has an ability to recover from the short-term waterlogging damage and that the response to waterlogging varies with the cultivar.

Effect of short-term waterlogging applied at various growth phases on growth, development and yield in Vigna unguiculata

The effects of short-term waterlogging during the vegetative, reproductive and total growth phases were investigated in four cultivars of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) in relation to their controls in a pot experiment conducted at the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, in 1989. All cultivars were able to recover completely and produce near to normal yields, when waterlogging was confined to the vegetative period. Recovery growth was affected in cultivars waterlogged during the total growth phase and the plants were significantly smaller (P &lt; 0·05) in vegetative dry matter (60–80% of the size of their respective controls) even at maturity. Recovery growth was affected, to a greater extent, in cultivars possessing a small mainstem[ratio ]branch ratio. Yield development in the waterlogged plants was affected by accelerated leaf senescence and consequent reduction in the reproductive period. As a result, yields in all the cultivars tested were significantly smaller (P &lt; 0·05) than their respective controls and varied between 54 and 60% of the controls. Plants waterlogged during the reproductive phase were not significantly different (P &lt; 0·05) in vegetative dry matter from the controls, but showed root degeneration and accelerated leaf senescence in all but one cultivar (Local Red). Yield reduction, however, was significant (P &lt; 0·05) only in IT-83S-898. Possible criteria for selecting plants tolerant to waterlogging are discussed.

Effect of waterlogging on the severity of disease caused by Mycosphaerella pinodes in peas (Pisum sativum L.)

The effect of waterlogging on the severity of disease caused by Mycosphaerella pinodes infection in field pea was measured in 2 experiments in the glasshouse. Disease significantly reduced root and shoot growth in both experiments. In a comparison of 2 cultivars with different sensitivities to waterlogging, the severity of disease was lower in the cultivar which was less sensitive to short-term waterlogging. Flooding the roots of plants after infection increased the visual symptoms of disease, but if plants were inoculated with the pathogen after flooding commenced, disease severity was reduced by waterlogging. Inoculation before waterlogging significantly reduced plant dry matter, but there was no reduction in plant growth by disease when inoculation occurred after waterlogging commenced. The results suggest that waterlogging of peas already infected with Mycosphaerella pinodes may result in more severe infection and greater reductions in plant growth, and cultivars more sensitive to waterlogging damage may also suffer greater losses from disease.

Response of short-duration pigeonpea to nitrogen application after short-term waterlogging on a Vertisol

Short-duration pigeonpea suffers from waterlogging damage following heavy rainfall at the pre-flowering stage on soils with high clay content, such as Vertisols. Effects of short-term waterlogging (3 d) on shoot and root growth of short-duration pigeonpea grown on a Vertisol field were quantified, and the alleviation of waterlogging damage by top-dressing of nitrogen fertilizer was examined. Reduced leaf chlorophyll, increased senescence and abscission of lower leaves were observed within 3 d of the initiation of waterlogging. Root growth and symbiotic N 2 fixation were also severely impaired. Root distributions of waterlogged plants were shallower than those of the control during the subsequent recovery period because new adventitious roots were formed in the shallow rather than deep soil layer. Yield of waterlogged crops was significantly smaller than the control. Top-dressing of nitrogen at one day after the termination of waterlogging alleviated waterlogging damage either completely or partially. Leaf chlorophyll and shoot dry mass of waterlogged plants were 78 and 84% of the values in control plants immediately after waterlogging but recovered to 92 and 98% of the control values at the pod-filling stage with a top-dressing of 50 kg N ha −1 . Nitrogen application promoted root growth in the shallow soil layers during the first 11 d after application, and in the deeper soil layers during the subsequent 16 d. Total nodule activity was significantly reduced by 100 kg N ha −1 , but increased by 50 kg N ha −1 around one month after the top-dressing. The reduction in seed yield was largely compensated for by 50 kg N ha −1 , because of recovery from waterlogging damage to shoot and root growth involving increased nodule activity.

Effect of short-term waterlogging on growth, yield and nutrient composition of wheat in alkaline soils

SummaryIn a field study at exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) values of 11 and 32, subjecting a wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) crop to waterlogging for 1, 2, 4 and 6 days at the time of first irrigation (25-day-old plants), significantly reduced tillering and plant height, delayed ear emergence and resulted in 8, 17, 27 and 39% reduction in grain yield, respectively. Waterlogging decreased oxygen diffusion rate (ODR), restricted root growth and reduced ion uptake, especially of N, P, K., Ca, Mg and Zn, and led to higher absorption of Na, Fe and Mn. However, the effects of waterlogging were more pronounced at higher alkalinity values. The results indicated that, to ensure optimum wheat yield in alkaline soils, waterlogging must be avoided.

Response of wheat to single short-term waterlogging during and after stem elongation

Transient waterlogging associated with spring irrigations on slowly draining soils causes yield reduction in irrigated wheat. Physiological responses to short-term flooding are not well understood. The aim of this experiment was to monitor above- and below-ground responses of wheat to single waterlogging events during and after stem elongation and to assess the sensitivity of the crop at these growth stages to flooding. Wheat (cv. Bindawarra) was grown in drainage lysimeters of undisturbed cores of Marah clay loam soil. A control treatment (F0) was well-watered throughout the season without surface flooding, while three others were flooded for 96 h at stem elongation (Fl), flag leaf emergence (F2) and anthesis (F3), respectively. Soil water content, soil O2, root length density, leaf and stem growth, apparent photosynthesis (APS), plant nutrient status and grain yield were measured. Soil water content increased and soil O2 levels decreased following flooding; the rate of soil O2 depletion increasing with crop age and root length. Leaf and stem growth and APS increased immediately following flooding, the magnitude of the increases was in the order F1 &gt;F2&gt;F3. A similar order existed in the effect of flooding which decreased the number of roots. Subsequently, leaf and stem growth decreased below that of F0 plants in F1, and briefly in F2. Decreases in APS of treated plants compared to F0 plants appeared to be due to their greater sensitivity to soil water deficit. There was no effect of flooding on grain yield. It is suggested that, while plant sensitivity to flooding decreased with age, flooding at stem elongation had no lasting detrimental effect on yield when post-flood watering was well controlled.

Response of maize to three short-term periods of waterlogging at high and low nitrogen levels on undisturbed and repacked soil

Crops grown with flood irrigation on slowly draining clay soils are subject to periods of waterlogging during and after each irrigation. The aim of this experiment was to quantify crop responses to these short-term waterlogging events and to assess the modifying effect of different agronomic practices. Maize was grown in undisturbed (U) and repacked (R) profiles of clay loam soil encased in steel cylinders (0.75 m diameter × 1.4 m deep). Two levels of N (high (HN) 300 kg N ha−1, and low (LN) 150 kg N ha−1) were applied as a split dressing. Three periods of flooding (F) of 72, 72 and 48 h were imposed on half the treatments beginning on days 40, 54 and 68 respectively after sowing. The other irrigation regime (C) kept the profile well watered but avoided surface inundation.

The response of sorghum and sunflower to short-term waterlogging

In pot trials the effects of waterlogging on water use and nutrient uptake in sunflower and sorghum were investigated in relation to stage of development of the crops and the timing and duration of waterlogging. Waterlogging at the vegetative and floral initiation stages of plant growth induced a reduction in water use in sunflower, with corresponding declines in leaf expansion and leaf water potential; in sorghum, the transpiration rates were much lower than for sunflower and relatively unaffected by waterlogging. Waterlogging at anthesis, however, caused an immediate reduction in water use in sunflower with a similar but delayed effect in sorghum. The differences in response of these 2 spp. are discussed in relation to the relative importance of water stress and nutrient uptake. Plant analysis at maturity indicated that waterlogging at any growth stage reduced both total and seed P contents in sunflower; similar effects were recorded with sorghum, except that waterlogging at anthesis did not reduce nutrient uptake. Waterlogging effects on plant K levels were variable

The response of sorghum and sunflower to short-term waterlogging

Sunflower and sorghum were waterlogged for nine days at the vegetative, budsvisible/initiation or anthesis stage of development under glasshouse conditions to document the changes which occurred in the soil environment. These changes were also monitored in the absence of plants. At all three stages, there was a rapid reduction in oxygen concentration followed by denitrification. The loss of nitrate was much greater in the presence of sunflower and sorghum. Other components of the redox system, manganese and iron, exhibited a slow increase in concentration as the duration of waterlogging was extended. However, increases were more marked at the later growth stages. Ethylene could be detected at all stages of water-logging although the highest levels were recorded during the first twenty-four hours at the vegetative stage under sunflower and sorghum. Toxins such as nitrite, volatile fatty acids and carbon dioxide appeared unimportant in this experiment. Similarly, observations on a range of cations suggested that nutrient availability was not a factor in causing waterlogging damage. The above changes in the soil environment are discussed in relation to observed effects on plant growth.

The response of sorghum and sunflower to short-term waterlogging

The response of sorghum and sunflower to short-term waterlogging

Cotton response to short-term waterlogging imposed with a water-table gradient facility

Waterlogging of field-grown plants can occur either when the surface of slowly permeable soils is inundated or when the water-table rises so that part or all of the root zone is saturated. The effects of short-term waterlogging on field crop growth and yield have not been well quantified. To study these effects, a sloping, repacked slab of soil underlain by an impermeable membrane was constructed. The sloping plot (45 m long × 6 m wide × 0.6 m deep) was flooded by introducing water through a drainage network and gravel bed so that a gradient of water-table depth ranging from 0.1 m above to 0.66 m below the soil surface was obtained. Cotton ( Gossypium hirsutum cv. Deltapine 61) was grown in the facility and the responses of plants to two periods of flooding were monitored. Soil matric potential and oxygen partial pressure data indicated that plants were subjected to a continuum of conditions ranging from complete inundation to no water-table within the root zone. The first flooding event began 82 days after sowing just prior to the main flowering period. Plants with more than 55% of their root system below the water table showed decreased leaf growth about 3–4 days after the flooding started with visible wilt symptoms and decreased leaf water potential observed on days 7 and 8 of flooding. In the second flooding event (131 days after sowing), plants showed no signs of waterlogging stress apart from reduced leaf growth despite 16 days of flooding. Plant growth response was probably more the result of reduced nutrient status (mostly nitrate) rather than a water deficit stress effect with some plant acclimatization between the first and second flooding event. Seed cotton yield data indicated that the observed stress during the first flooding event may have promoted reproductive growth in plants where the short-term water-table was greater than 0.2 m below the soil surface.

The response of sorghum and sunflower to short-term waterlogging

The effect of waterlogging on sunflower and sorghum was investigated in relation to stage of development (sunflower: 6-leaf, buds-visible, anthesis:sorghum:5-leaf, initiation, anthesis) and duration of waterlogging (3, 6 or 9 days) under glasshouse conditions. The potential adaptation of the two crops was observed by waterlogging some plants at all three growth stages. With sunflower, leaf expansion and stem extension were inhibited by waterlogging at the 6-leaf and buds-visible stage, although these effects did not always persist until maturity, while with anthesis waterlogging rapid desiccation of leaves was observed. Yield was most affected by the anthesis waterlogging, but no consistent effect on seed number or 1000 seed weight was recorded. Waterlogging sorghum plants suppressed normal tillering, but had little effect on dry weight of the main stem. Late tillering was stimulated by waterlogging. Reductions in leaf area occurred at all stages of development in response to waterlogging, being most marked at initiation. Similarly, yield was reduced most by initiation waterlogging, largely as a result of reduced seed number. In neither species was there a clear relationship between duration of waterlogging and subsequent reduction in growth and yield. With respect to yield, stage of development seemed to be of greater importance than the duration of waterlogging. Growth and yield were less affected by the anthesis treatment in multiple-waterlogged sunflowers than in plants experiencing a single waterlogging, suggesting that some form of adaptation was induced. No such response was seen in sorghum

The effect of short-term waterlogging during furrow irrigation of cotton in a cracking grey clay

A crop of cotton cv. Deltapine 61 was waterlogged in the field by running water in furrows for 4, 8, 12 or 16 h at each of three crop irrigations in a cracking grey clay soil at Narrabri, N.S.W. The season was hot and dry, and rainfall did not influence waterlogging treatment. Increasing the inundation period from 4 to 16 h reduced lint yields by 15.9 g m-2 or 8%. Waterlogging treatment had little effect on leaf area, plant height, dry matter and boll size. Lint yield loss from waterlogging was largely associated with reduced boll number m-2. Soil aeration results showed that treatment affected the rate of recovery from waterlogging, and that recovery rate was also a function of soil depth. On taking an air-filled porosity of 0.10 cm3 cm-3 as limiting for growth of roots in soil, the surface 0-10 cm layer was always adequately aerated. However, increasing the inundation from 4 to 16 h delayed soil recovery at 10-20 cm from 0.85 to 1.54 days, and at 20-30 cm from 3.83 to 4.20 days. Multiple regression analysis showed that 77 % of the variation in lint yield could be accounted for by the lengths of time taken for the 10-20 cm and 20-30 cm layers to recover from waterlogging. However, associated yield losses were 2.5 times greater for the 10-20 cm layer than for the 20-30 cm layer for each day of waterlogging in the two layers. The results indicated that lint yield is likely to increase if cotton crops are irrigated and drained faster to reduce contact time. The farmer may achieve this by using larger siphons, more siphons per furrow, shorter furrows or steeper furrows.

The effects of duration, timing and chemical amelioration of short-term waterlogging during furrow irrigation of cotton in a cracking grey clay

The effects of the duration, timing and chemical amelioration of short-term waterlogging during furrow irrigation of cotton in a cracking grey clay soil were investigated at Narrabri, N.S.W. Water was run in furrows for 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 h at each of the three crop irrigations. In other treatments, watering was extended from 4 to 16 h either at the first, second or third irrigation, to establish at which irrigation waterlogging had the most effect. Soil applications of hydrogen peroxide and foliar sprays of urea were evaluated as chemical ameliorants of short-term waterlogging. Increasing the period of inundation from 4 to 32 h reduced green bolls m-2 by 17.5 %, open bolls m-2 by 20.6 % and final lint yield by 300 kg ha-1 or 18.3 %. No further decreases were observed by increasing the period of inundation to 64 h. Extended waterlogging was equally damaging at each of the three irrigations. The rate of recovery from waterlogging to an air-filled porosity of 0.10 cm3 cm-3 in the top 20 cm of soil was highly correlated with lint yield, and was consistent with results from a previous season. Soil applications of hydrogen peroxide did not ameliorate waterlogging damage, whereas significantly higher lint yields were obtained from foliar sprays of urea applied prior to each irrigation. The results confirmed that cotton should be irrigated and thereafter drained rapidly in this soil to minimize loss of yield. This could be achieved by increasing the rate of application of irrigation water and by using shorter fields and steeper slopes. The use of chemical ameliorants requires further investigation.