Short-duration Rainfall Research Articles

Regional dynamic early warning model for rainfall-induced landslide in Fujian, China

Recent advances have significantly enhanced dynamic early warning systems for rainfall-induced landslides by integrating rainfall thresholds with susceptibility mapping. However, there is still room for optimizing these models for regional-scale applications. This study introduces a dynamic early warning model in Anxi County, Fujian Province, China—a region prone to rainfall-induced landslides. First, historical landslide data and their controlling factors were analyzed for the study area, and an optimal landslide susceptibility map was produced by integrating an information value model with a logistic regression model. Second, based on the theory of effective rainfall, the regional rainfall threshold model was established according to the indices of daily and hourly rainfall, and the model’s accuracy was evaluated. Third, the more effective E-D (daily index) and EE-D (hourly index) models were coupled with the landslide susceptibility map for landslide dynamic early warning. The model’s validation results show its significant predictive capabilities, with the hourly model proving more accurate for short-duration rainfall events. This study provides valuable insights for local authorities on dynamic early warning for rainfall-induced landslides and offers guidance for refining dynamic early warning systems in similar regions.

Burst flooding in Singapore: an emerging urban flooding type revealed by high-temporal-resolution observations

Abstract Urbanisation significantly alters the interaction between land surface and the lower troposphere, impacting occurrences of natural hazards. The influence of urbanisation on natural hazards like heatwaves, hailstorms, and flooding remains debated. However, it is well established that impervious surfaces in urban areas can lead to flooding amplification. Singapore, amidst rapid urbanisation, experiences frequent flooding, exacerbated by its tropical-monsoon climate and climate change. Utilising high-temporal-resolution rainfall data from 2017 onwards, we examined the dynamics of urban flooding in Singapore. In total, 108 flooding events were reported for the period 2017-2023, all of a transient nature, primarily linked to cloudbursts. Based on the unique precipitation characteristics associated with urban flash flooding, the term “burst flooding” is introduced to refer to urban floods caused by intense, short-duration rainfall events. A notable increase in cloudburst occurrences in November and December during La Niña years emphasises the role of global climate phenomena in local weather.

Influence of rubber particle inputs on nitrogen removal efficiency of bioretention systems.

Bioretention systems effectively capture rubber particles and other microplastics in stormwater runoff. However, it is uncertain whether long-term particle accumulation affects pollutant removal efficacy. This study investigated the impact of various concentrations of ethylene-propylene-diene-monomer (EPDM) particles (0, 50, 100, and 400 mg/L) on bioretention system nitrogen removal performance. The input of EPDM during short-duration (2 h) rainfall favored the removal of nitrogen, and the total nitrogen effluent concentration of the bioretention system with EPDM was reduced by 0.59-1.52 mg/L compared with that of the system without EPDM. In addition, the input of EPDM reduced the negative effects of drought. During long-duration (24 h) rainfall, higher concentrations of EPDM led to lower nitrate-nitrogen concentrations in the effluent. The bioretention system with EPDM required less time for nitrate-nitrogen removal to reach 50% than that without EPDM input. Microbial community analysis showed that EPDM increased the relative total abundance of denitrifying bacteria (such as Dechloromonas, Zoogloea, Ramlibacter, and Aeromonas) by 7.25-10.26%, which improved the denitrification capacity of the system.

Climate change is intensifying rainfall erosivity and soil erosion in West Africa

Soil erosion is a critical environmental challenge with significant implications for agriculture, water quality, and ecosystem stability. Understanding its dynamics is essential for sustainable environmental management and societal welfare. Here, we analyze rainfall erosivity and erosion patterns across West Africa (WAF) during the historical (1982–2014), near future (2028–2060), and far future (2068–2100) periods under Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs 370 and 585). Using bias-corrected-downscaled (BCD) climate models validated against reference data, we ensure an accurate representation of rainfall—a key driver of erosivity (R-factor) and soil erosion. We compare Renard's approach and the Modified Fournier Index (MFI) to calculate the R-factor and note a strong correlation. However, Renard's method shows slightly lower accuracy in Sierra Leone, Guinea, and The Gambia, likely due to its inability to capture high-intensity, short-duration rainfall events. In contrast, the MFI, utilizing continuous rain gauge data, proves more reliable for these regions. We also attribute fluctuations in erosivity, such as those seen during the 2003 West Africa floods, to synoptic weather patterns influenced by multiple climate processes.Furthermore, our analysis reveals regions where future soil erosion could exceed 20 t/ha/yr due to climate change. Under the SSP 370 scenario, soil erosion in WAF is projected to rise by 14.84 % in the near future and 18.65 % in the far future, increasing further under SSP 585 to 19.86 % and 23.49 %, respectively. The most severe increases are expected in Benin and Nigeria, with Nigeria potentially facing a 66.41 % rise in erosion by the far future under SSP 585. These findings highlight the region's exposure to intensified climatic conditions and underscore the urgent need for targeted soil management and climate adaptation strategies to mitigate erosion's ecological and socioeconomic impacts.

Evaluating Rainfall Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves: A Comparison of Extreme Value Type I and Log-transformed Pearson Type III Distribution Methods in Bangladesh's Northern Region

In semiarid regions, the Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curves for rainfall are critical for managing water resources, as water scarcity is often the primary limiting factor. This study takes a comprehensive approach to generalize the relationship between daily rainfall and shorter-duration rainfall across varying return periods. Urban drainage infrastructures—like storm sewers, culverts, and other hydraulic designs—must be developed to address both drought and flooding issues. Daily rainfall data are typically sufficient for hydrologic and floodplain analyses related to designing and evaluating water control mechanisms, including polders, flood barriers, irrigation, and drainage systems. Small hydraulic systems such as culverts, storm drains, and drainage systems in urban areas or airports are often designed based on extreme rainfall data. This study utilized 44 years (1980–2023) of annual maximum rainfall data from the Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD). The Indian Meteorological Department's (IMD) empirical reduction formula was applied to estimate short-duration rainfall intensities using this data. IDF curves and equations were developed using the Log Transformed Pearson Type III (LPT III) and Extreme Value Extreme-Value Distribution methods. The results obtained using the Extreme Value method was slightly higher compared to the LPT III distribution results. The estimated rainfall intensities agreed with previous studies in certain areas of the study region. IDF equation parameters and correlation coefficients for various return periods (2, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 years) were determined using the least squares method. The results demonstrated high correlation coefficients, indicating the reliability of the equations in estimating IDF curves for the studied region. The study also found that rainfall intensity decreases as the duration increases, and those storms of any duration become more intense over extended return periods.

A multi-objective optimization and evaluation framework for LID facilities considering urban surface runoff and shallow groundwater regulation

Currently, the goals of sponge city construction mostly focus on urban surface water, with few considerations of groundwater indicators, and there is a lack of simulation methods that consider the interaction between surface water and groundwater under low impact development (LID) scenarios. Taking a sponge campus in Xi'an as the research object, this paper proposes a method to realize the interaction between surface water and groundwater at different spatial and temporal scales, so as to construct a SWMM-MODFLOW coupled numerical model to carry out the analysis of hydrological effect of sponge city comprehensively taking into account both surface water and groundwater. Simultaneously, the SWMM is coupled with the NSGA-III algorithm for multi-objective optimization of LID facility configurations, aiming to identify a globally optimal solution set for LID facility configurations under both long and short-duration rainfall scenarios. A novel framework for a comprehensive evaluation system of surface water-groundwater benefits is also developed to comprehensively assess LID facility optimization schemes that meet the goals of stormwater runoff infiltration and reduction, pollution interception and purification, and groundwater recharge conservation. The simulation results show that after optimization, the LID scheme has good surface runoff regulation effects and pollution reduction capabilities, reducing the runoff peak from 2.297 m3/s to 2.128 m3/s, significantly lowering the risk of inundation and effectively reducing the total suspended solids (SS) load by 42.38 kg at the outfall. Meanwhile, the groundwater recharge effect is particularly significant in September. Compared to the baseline scenario, the average groundwater levels from June to September were raised by 3.966 cm, 5.120 cm, 6.743 cm, and 7.639 cm, respectively. The maximum daily groundwater level rise reached 7.82 cm, while the average groundwater level for the whole year of 2023 increased by 2.61 cm. The maximum transport area of pollutants decreased from 2359.44 m2 to 1796.54 m2, and the maximum transport distance reduced from 79.985 m to 69.977 m. Additionally, the central concentration of pollutants also decreased. This optimization evaluation framework will aid decision-makers in selecting LID facility management strategies that balance the dual benefits of surface water runoff and groundwater regulation.

Madden Julian Oscillation Influence on Diurnal Variation of Rainfall in Mentawai Islands Indonesia from IMERG Observations

Abstract Mentawai is a small island located in the Indian Ocean, so its rainfall pattern tends to be different from the larger islands in Indonesian region. Various scales of factors influence this, one of which is Madden Julian Oscillation (MJO). The aim of this study is to determine effect of MJO in Mentawai Islands on the diurnal variation of rainfall. Rainfall data was collected from 2000-2022 from Integrated Multi-SatellitE Retrievals for GPM (IMERG). Diurnal variations were observed in the accumulation (PA), frequency (PF), and intensity (PI) of rainfall and MJO was classified into active phase (2, 3, 4, and 5) and inactive phase (1, 6, 7, and 8) during the seasonal period (DJF-MAM-JJA-SON). Diurnal peak times in PA, PF, and PI occur later when MJO is active than when MJO is inactive, especially in JJA and SON periods in Mentawai Islands and Mentawai Strait. When MJO is active, average PA and PF are higher than when MJO is inactive. The average of PI is higher around the ocean during active and inactive phases of MJO. The number of short-duration rainfall events occurred over the land, while long-duration rainfall occurred over the ocean.

Atmospheric patterns associated with summer sub-daily rainfall extremes in western Europe

Large-scale atmospheric circulations are a significant driver of rainfall extremes. However, little attention has so far been devoted to understanding how large-scale circulation patterns influence sub-daily rainfall extremes. Using a gauge-based sub-daily rainfall dataset, we investigate the relationship between large-scale circulations and 3-hour extremes (defined here as ≥ 40 mm rainfall in 3 h) for western Europe. A set of 30 weather patterns (WPs) developed by the UK Met Office and reanalysis data of geopotential height at 500 hPa (z500) are used to represent large-scale atmospheric conditions. Strong associations with 3-hour extremes are found for a small number of WPs: over 50% of 3-hour rainfall extremes across Western Europe occur with just 5 WPs. Composites of z500 reveal the WPs resulting in southerly or south-westerly flow along the leading edge of a trough, accompanied by a ridge to the east or northeast, are most favourable for sub-daily rainfall extremes, with a statistically significant difference between the atmospheric conditions on WP days with a 3-hour extreme rainfall event compared to WP non-event days. Given that large-scale circulations are predictable much further in advance than individual extreme rainfall events, these identified relationships could therefore have important implications for forecasting, aiding in the early identification of periods with increased risk of short-duration rainfall extremes.

Analysing Micro-Level Rainfall Trends: Implications for Water Conservation in Paravanar River Basin

High-intensity, short-duration rainfall resulting in flood hazards is one of the significant challenges now. On the other hand, this basin is affected by drought in the subsequent years because of the lack of conservation of floodwater and high elevation difference. Rainfall analysis is the preliminary study for suggesting the type of water conservation measures. This study analyzes the trend and change point at a micro-scale with its village boundaries for the Paravanar River basin. One hundred forty-eight villages under six blocks have increasing trends, 28 towns in the summer season using rain gauge dataset show decreasing trends which are considered negligible, and the rest of the villages have no trends. It is identified that; trend analysis works well with the extended data record. 1991 is the trend change point for gridded data, and 1995 is for the rain gauge data. The main aim of this study is to analyze the rainfall trends and their change point at a micro level and suggest mitigation measures with the indigenous facilities.

Unique Seasonal Variation in Rainfall Diurnal Features on the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau

Based on hourly precipitation observations, the diurnal variation in precipitation and its seasonal evolution over the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau (YGP) were analyzed. The results indicate that the seasonal variation in hourly rainfall in the western part of the YGP is unique. The rainfall reaches its hourly maximum during the late afternoon in spring (March–April) and during nighttime in summer (July–August), which contrasts with the pattern in most of eastern China. By further classifying the rainfall into short-duration (1–3 h) and long-duration (more than 6 h) events, the unique seasonal variations in the western YGP are found to mainly be comprised of short-duration rainfall. The long-duration rainfall shares similar diurnal peaks year-round for both the western and eastern parts of the YGP. The short-duration rainfall in the western part of the YGP shows a year-round afternoon peak, which is different from that of the eastern YGP, which peaks from midnight to early morning in spring and in the late afternoon in summer. The surface maximum daily temperature and low-level instabilities reach their annual maximum in spring over the western YGP and are also higher than in other parts of the YGP, together providing favorable conditions for convection to be triggered in spring afternoons over the western YGP.

Rainfall intensification amplifies exposure of American Southwest to conditions that trigger postfire debris flows

Short-duration, high-intensity rainfall can initiate deadly and destructive debris flows after wildfire. Methods to estimate the conditions that can trigger debris flows exist and guidance to determine how often those thresholds will be exceeded under the present climate are available. However, the limited spatiotemporal resolution of climate models has hampered efforts to characterize how rainfall intensification driven by global warming may affect debris-flow hazards. We use novel, dynamically downscaled (3.75-km), convection-permitting simulations of short-duration (15-min) rainfall to evaluate threshold exceedance for late 21st-century climate scenarios in the American Southwest. We observe significant increases in the frequency and magnitude of exceedances for regions dominated by cool- and warm-season rainfall. We also observe an increased frequency of exceedance in regions where postfire debris flows have not been documented, and communities are unaccustomed to the hazard. Our findings can inform planning efforts to increase resiliency to debris flows under a changing climate.

Exploring the Spatio-Temporal Trends of Geomorphological Incidents Induced by Precipitation on Chinese Highways

The spatiotemporal distribution of geomorphological incidents was examined in the present study, including the characteristics of obstruction distances and durations, by utilizing nationwide incident mitigation data and precipitation observation records from the period spanning 2019 to 2022. By comparing rainfall features over different temporal scales across various regions, the aim of the present study was to enhance the current comprehension of the patterns through which regional precipitation initiates incidents on highways by comparing rainfall characteristics over distinct temporal scales across diverse geographical areas. The findings indicate that: (1) The spatial distribution of highway incidents in China is significantly correlated with regional natural environments, predominantly concentrated in the southern parts of the country’s second and third topographical terraces. The temporal distribution closely aligns with annual and monthly precipitation patterns, with the majority of occurrences taking place from June to September. Further, notable disparities in the distribution of highway-related incidents were observed among counties across most provinces; (2) National highways experience a notably higher frequency of incidents than expressways and provincial roads, with most obstruction lengths concentrated within 1 km and durations predominantly under 3 days; (3) The probability of daily rainfall inducing highway incidents is distinctly higher than that of short-duration rainfall, with eastern and southern China experiencing significantly greater inducing precipitation volumes than other regions. The majority of areas are susceptible to incidents within a 3-day window following heavy rainfall or within 24 h after intense short-duration rainfall. Moreover, it is observed that incidents are more closely associated with extreme precipitation occurring within a single day; (4) There is a certain lag between the timing of incidents and the occurrence of extreme short-duration heavy rainfall, with the highest frequency of incidents coinciding with continuous rainfall periods of 3 to 6 days.

Improving Flash Flood Hydrodynamic Simulations by Integrating Leaf Litter and Interception Processes in Steep-Sloped Natural Watersheds

More frequent high-intensity, short-duration rainfall events increase the risk of flash floods on steeply sloped watersheds. Where measured data are unavailable, numerical models emerge as valuable tools for predicting flash floods. Recent applications of various hydrological and hydrodynamic models to predict overland flow have highlighted the need for improved representations of the complex flow processes that are inherent in flash floods. This study aimed to identify an optimal modeling approach for characterizing leaf litter losses during flash floods. At a gauged watershed in the Hidegvíz Valley in Hungary, a physical-based model was calibrated using two distinct rainfall–runoff events. Two modeling methodologies were implemented, integrating canopy interception and leaf litter storage, to understand their contributions during flash flood events. The results from the model’s calibration demonstrated this approach’s effectiveness in determining the impact of leaf litter on steep-sloped watersheds. Soil parameters can estimate the behavior of leaf litter during flash flood events. In this study, hydraulic conductivity and initial water content emerged as critical factors for effective parametrization. The findings underscore the potential of a hydrodynamic model to explore the relationship between leaf litter and flash flood events, providing a framework for future studies in watershed management and risk-mitigation strategies.

Evaluating groundwater resources trends through multiple conceptual models and GRACE satellite data.

In this research, three numerical groundwater flow models, developed and calibrated from three equally plausible conceptual models over the Nasia Basin, have been used to assess groundwater resources variations over a transient period. The use of multiple numerical models reduces the effect of uncertainties in conceptual model formulation. All the three calibrated numerical models indicate an increasing trend of groundwater recharge and storage over the period of the groundwater level monitoring. This suggests that the prevailing erratic climatic conditions in the area are conducive for increasing groundwater recharge and storage in the terrain. The high-intensity, short duration rainfall patterns, attending climate change in the basin, enhance high levels of infiltration and percolation, leading to steadily increasing groundwater recharge. Groundwater recharge estimates from each of the models over the transient period appear to reflect the pattern of seasonal variations in rainfall in the region. Data from the models indicates a significant role of baseflow in sustaining perennial streamflow in the area. This presents a significant development in terms of groundwater-based adaptation projects, especially in agriculture. The trend of groundwater recharge in the Nasia Basin is in sync with regional groundwater storage variations estimated from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite data collected and processed over the Volta Basin. At the Volta Basin level, groundwater storage variations indicate a strong positive trend of increasing groundwater recharge from 2002 (beginning of the GRACE mission) to 2022 (end point of the data used for this research). Analysis of the GRACE data suggests that there is a cumulative increase in groundwater storage by 30cm, representing approximately 120 km3 of groundwater over the period in the basin. This translates into approximately 15mm/year of groundwater storage increase. Thus, at both the regional and local levels, groundwater appears to be responding positively to the impacts of erratic rainfall patterns observed in the area recently. The high-intensity, short duration rainfall patterns appear to favor significant groundwater recharge, resulting in a strong positive groundwater storage signal. The high positive groundwater storage signal suggests increasing groundwater resources potential in the area, indicating promising opportunities for groundwater-based climate change adaptation interventions.

Pluvial Flood Susceptibility in the Local Community of the City of Gospić (Croatia)

Pluvial flooding (PF), resulting from intense short-duration rainfall events, is challenging in urban areas amidst climate change and rapid urbanization. Identifying flood-prone zones and implementing collaborative mitigation strategies with the local population are crucial aspects of PF management. This study aims to enhance the understanding of urban PF in Croatia by collecting historical PF data, creating the GIS-MCDA susceptibility model, and conducting a risk perception survey for the study area of Gospić. Susceptibility zones were generated utilizing topographical, environmental, and hydrological criteria using the AHP method. To examine the risk perception, a face-to-face survey was conducted among 5% of the city’s population (N = 64). Five factors were defined: (F1) risk awareness, (F2) anthropogenic and (F3) natural causes of PF, (F4) potential consequences, and (F5) preparedness. The reliability of the questionnaire was very high (>0.71). Most respondents believe they are ill-equipped to defend against flooding independently and express a lack of confidence in the measures taken by local authorities. The highly susceptible zones encompass not only agricultural areas but also residential zones of city. Among all respondents, 36% live in a flood-prone area and half of them have no flood insurance or other mitigation measures. Incorporating locals’ suggestions and problems, mitigation measures were proposed. Results from this research can be a starting point for further research in Croatia and can provide guidelines for decision-makers in implementing a risk mitigation strategy.

Efficacy of rain barrels and rain gardens to reduce urban pluvial flooding in densely built-up residential areas: a case study on Miyahara-Cho in Saitama City, Japan

In recent years, flooding in densely built-up residential areas has tended to increase because of the increased frequency of heavy rain and climate change. Urban pluvial flooding mitigation is thus needed by reducing the runoff of sewer systems using green infrastructure solutions. In this regard, rain barrels (RBs) and rain gardens (RGs) are considered effective stormwater management methods. This study aimed to verify the effectiveness of RBs and RGs and their combined use in reducing urban pluvial flooding in densely built-up residential areas. This research undertook a case study in Miyahara-Cho, Saitama City, Japan. It involved the analysis of the total runoff of sewer systems and the flood condition in the sewer to verify the rainwater runoff control effect of RBs and RGs through simulations using the US Environmental Protection Agency’s stormwater management model. This study simulates two main types of rainfall events: short duration and long duration. The results of the short duration rainfall showed that the combination of RBs and RGs is highly effective and can reduce the impact of excess runoff. In the case of the long duration rainfall, the volume and speed of stormwater runoff of the first peak rainfall were reduced.

Developing synthetic sewer pipe system for data-scarce domains in application for urban flood modeling

Abstract In urban flood modeling, the accuracy of surface and subsurface flow calculations greatly depends on the parameterization of the drainage system. Incorporating the influence of the sewer pipe system is, therefore, integral to accurately simulating urban inundation during short-duration rainfall events. However, obtaining comprehensive data on sewer systems in developing countries is currently challenging. To mitigate this situation, we propose a method for developing a synthetic sewer network to supplement the representation of the sewer system in urban flood models, particularly in data-scarce domains. The model implements the concept of shallow water equation for surface flow and a 1D slot model for pipe flows with an interaction equation between them. We compare case studies with and without discharge interaction between the surface and hypothetical sewer system for the 2020 flood event in an urban subcatchment within the Marikina Basin, Philippines. Results show that the synthetic sewer pipe integration can capture the urban flood propagation more appropriately. Information such as flood depth and pipe flow discharge can aid in identifying flood-prone areas where sewer system parameters may require modifications. The proposed method can be used as an alternative to performing high-resolution urban flood simulations with limited availability of sewer network data.

Changes in design precipitation over the Nordic-Baltic region as given by convection-permitting climate simulations

The increased risk of flooding due to global warming and subsequent heavy rainfall events in the Nordic-Baltic region, call for recommendations directed at long-term planning. One example of such recommendations are climate change allowances. These are often based on expected changes in design precipitation as given by climate model simulations, and are used as a buffer on top of current design values to avoid a future increased damage potential as a consequence of climate change. We here compute expected changes in precipitation design values, so-called climate factors (CFs), for the Nordic-Baltic region, based on 3 km convection permitting simulations from the Nordic Convection Permitting Climate Projections project. These have the advantage of explicitly resolving convection, which has been shown to be the main contributor to increased rainfall. We assess the dependence of the CFs on rainfall duration, return period, and geographical location, focusing on the summer (convective) season, short durations and the high emission scenario RCP8.5. We also compare these CFs to those computed from a non-convection permitting regional climate model ensemble.We found higher CFs for the longer return period, with only few exceptions, and distinctly higher CFs going from daily to sub-daily durations. However, the different simulations give conflicting results for very short-duration rainfall (<3 h). The huge difference in the climate sensitivity of driving GCMs dominates the magnitude of estimated return levels. Our analysis is shaped by the high computational costs of running convection permitting models, resulting in a very limited ensemble (3 members) representing a single emission scenario (RCP8.5). Therefore, we believe that combining results from convection permitting simulations with a larger ensemble (21 members) of non-convection permitting simulations adds value to the assessment of robust climate change allowances for heavy precipitation in the Nordic-Baltic region.

Urbanization-Induced Diurnal Variation in Short-Duration Rainfall Events in Wuhan, China

Increasing of evidence suggests that rapid urbanization modifies precipitation and increases atmospheric instability in urban areas mainly due to urban heat island (UHI)-induced thermal effects and urban building-induced dynamic effects. However, few studies focus on the impact of urbanization on the diurnal variations in urban rainfall in terms of initiating time, frequency, amount, and intensity. Here, six years of hourly data from a relatively dense meteorological observation network in the Wuhan area in central China are used to quantify the issue of urbanization-induced diurnal variations in hourly rainfall and short-duration rainfall (SDR) events by comparing urban and surrounding rural stations during the summer dry period (13 July to 4 August), corresponding to hot weather with little rainfall and high evaporation. The results indicate that: (i) A higher frequency of hourly rainfall appears during night-time and afternoon over urban areas as compared to rural areas. The urban rainfall is more concentrated during the night-time; (ii) More and stronger urban SDR events are triggered during the night-time over urban areas, especially in terms of amount and intensity of rainfall events. A greater diurnal urban–rural difference in SDR events is detected than that in hourly mean rainfall; (iii) There is an enhancement in the night-time and afternoon urban SDR events when UHI intensity increases before they are initiated, and this is detectable in the frequency, amount, and intensity of SDR events. It is also found that the UHI-induced thermal effects are the main reason for the stronger nocturnal SDR events in Wuhan during the summer dry period, which is caused by increases in the convection current and water vapor flux convergence in the urban areas.

A gauge-based sub-daily extreme rainfall climatology for western Europe

We present here the first climatology of extreme sub-daily rainfall for a large part of western Europe, developed using a newly developed set of sub-daily rainfall indices, derived from a recently created global sub-daily rainfall (GSDR) dataset. The indices describe sub-daily (3-hourly) rainfall extremes in terms of their intensity, frequency and timing. Analysis of the frequency index (number of 3hr periods with >20 mm rain (R3hr20mm)) and a suite of intensity indices including the annual maxima (Rx3hr) and values of the 99.9th percentile at each gauge (R99.9p3hr) indicate a peak in the frequency and intensity of short-duration rainfall extremes in summer across most of western Europe, while areas around the north-west Mediterranean experience the highest intensities and frequencies of 3-hr rainfall in autumn. The index of contribution from 3-h annual maxima to the daily total (Rx3hrP) indicates that these events are often produced by very short-duration or very peaked storms, with a tendency towards a late afternoon or evening peak in the time of occurrence. There are also clear differences in the spatiotemporal occurrence of the sub-daily extremes when compared to extreme daily rainfall indices, which could have repercussions for flood management. Additional analysis of the sub-daily rainfall indices within the context of Köppen-Geiger climate zones indicates Mediterranean-type climate zones experience more intense and more frequent sub-daily extremes, while the intensity of rainfall within cooler climate zones is lower and the most intense events are restricted to summer. The climate zones are found to be a relatively good indicator of the extreme rainfall characteristics that can be expected in a region. Being able to compare sub-daily rainfall characteristics across a wide region in this manner greatly enhances our ability to investigate future variability and change in sub-daily extremes and will aid in high-resolution climate model validation.