Gaze Shifts Research Articles (Page 1)

Cortical activity shows the ability to recover from distractions. We analyzed neural activity from the pFC of monkeys performing working memory tasks with mid-memory delay distractions (a cued gaze shift or an irrelevant visual input). After distraction, there were state-space rotational dynamics that returned spiking to population patterns similar to those predisruption. In fact, rotations were fuller when the task was performed correctly versus when errors were made. We found a correspondence between state-space rotations and traveling waves across the surface of pFC. This suggests a role for emergent dynamics like state-space rotations and traveling waves in recovery from distractions.

Detection of eye movements and eye blinks using a portable two-channel EEG platform.

Intraoperative ultrasonography (IOUS) is essential in minimally invasive hepatobiliary-pancreatic surgery but requires surgeons to alternate attention between laparoscopic and ultrasound monitors, disrupting workflow. We developed Flag AR, an augmented reality system that superimposes real-time ultrasound images onto laparoscopic displays using visual marker tracking. This prospective observational study included 14 patients undergoing minimally invasive hepatobiliary-pancreatic procedures between March and April 2025. Three experienced surgeons performed target identification tasks using both Flag AR and conventional IOUS. Eye-tracking analysis measured gaze shifts and visual focus time using wearable eye-tracking glasses. Twenty-six anatomical targets were evaluated, including liver tumors (n = 13), gallbladder tumors (n = 4), and vascular structures (n = 9). Although task completion time showed no significant difference between modalities (23.8 vs. 22.1s, P = 0.351), Flag AR significantly reduced gaze shifts compared to conventional IOUS (1.8 vs. 8.4 shifts, P < 0.001) and increased time focused on a single monitor (97.9% vs. 73.8%, P < 0.001). Flag AR represents the first clinical application of purely visual marker-based ultrasound overlay technology in minimally invasive surgery. By enabling sustained visual focus on a single display, this system improves surgeon workflow efficiency during IOUS procedures without compromising task performance, potentially enhancing spatial visualization and reducing cognitive workload in complex surgical procedures.

The rapid expansion of metro systems has exacerbated lighting-related issues, including uneven illuminance, glare, and blind spots. These issues compromise passenger visual comfort and perceived safety. Previous research has predominantly focused on individual lighting parameters, paying little attention to the combined effects of multiple factors. Perceived safety is a core objective in metro space design and is particularly susceptible to adverse visual environments. This study uses field measurements, virtual environment simulations, and eye tracking experiments to investigate the influence of lighting conditions and interface design (ceiling height and material) on visual comfort and perceived safety. The findings indicate that light-coloured, low-reflectance materials enhance visual guidance, whereas dark, high-reflectance surfaces induce frequent gaze shifts and diminish perceived safety. The optimal environmental benchmark parameters were illuminance levels of 140–270 lux and a correlated color temperature (CCT) of 4428–6250 K. This study also discusses optimizing interface design parameters in different spatial contexts. It also revealed systematic correlations between lighting parameters and spatial geometry, particularly regarding ceiling height. Elevated spaces require increased illuminance and color temperature to compensate for light attenuation, while areas with low ceilings necessitate reduced lighting intensity and warmer color temperatures to mitigate oppressive sensations. This evidence provides a human-centered theoretical foundation for lighting design in underground transport spaces.

Abstract A prevalent philosophical view holds that information about the self remains implicit in perceptual representation. While it correctly describes the most basic perceptual representations, I argue that this view does not hold for more complex, but still low-level, perceptual representations of space. I propose that in the course of perceptual processing, implicit information about the self is made explicit. My discussion centers on a detailed study of egocentric reference frames. I suggest that within the perceptual system of a creature, these reference frames form a hierarchy, in which each frame that is implicit at one stage of perceptual processing is explicit at the next. This hierarchy allows implicit information about the self to be articulated as processing advances. I show how standard explanations of two perceptual phenomena – gaze shifts and the illusory experience of self-motion – are committed to and thus support this hierarchical picture.

Neural dynamics in superior colliculus of freely moving mice.

On the temporal dynamics of head and eye movements for walking on real-world surfaces.

The premotor theory of attention suggests that both overt and covert attentional orienting are governed by similar mechanisms and neural structures, a concept extensively investigated in paradigms involving shifts in attention and gaze towards peripheral targets. Previous studies have found a strong link between cortical alpha oscillations and overt smooth pursuit of a target. However, the relationship between alpha oscillations and covert tracking of peripheral moving stimuli remains unclear. To address this, we asked 16 observers to maintain fixation while covertly attending to a visual stimulus moving along the horizontal meridian at varying speeds (2, 6, or 12 °/s), within either the left or right hemifield. We simultaneously recorded both eye movements and EEG data. Our results revealed that alpha power was significantly reduced when observers tracked a target that moved further in the periphery, independent of its speed. These findings confirm that the distribution of alpha power is sensitive to the allocation of covert attention during tracking. This suggests a tight link between the attentional processes involved in covert tracking and overt pursuit of a moving target, supporting the premotor theory of attention.

Much research has focused on how perceptual, cognitive, and attentional processes modulate microsaccades, the small rapid gaze shifts that humans perform when attempting to maintain steady gaze on a point. Yet the reasons why these fixational saccades occur in the first place have remained unclear. Long-standing theories have argued for either spatial (i.e., gaze centering) or temporal mechanisms (i.e., a periodical release process). However, this debate has never been resolved, primarily because of uncertainty in determining where the observer looks. Whereas modern eye-trackers enable detection of small eye movements, accurate localization of the line of sight remains challenging. Here, rather than indirectly inferring gaze position from oculomotor activity, we used a gaze-contingent procedure to directly estimate the perceived center of the visual field, a method that has been previously shown to effectively reduce uncertainty. Our results from subjects of both sexes show that the generation of fixational saccades depends on the interaction of spatial and temporal factors. Fixational saccades are remarkably accurate in correcting for fixation errors, even when gaze is minimally displaced. However, fixational saccades also occur when gaze is centered, but their latency increases as the fixation error decreases. These results suggest that fixational saccades serve an important corrective function when needed, but they can only be avoided for a limited period of time when fixation is already accurate.

Humans explore visual scenes through frequent, rapid gaze shifts known as saccades. These movements redirect the high-acuity region of the retina toward objects of interest, thus selecting information based on location. Here, we show that saccade amplitude provides a separate and complementary form of selection, effectively filtering visual information by spatial frequency rather than location. Specifically, a reduction in saccade amplitude attenuates post-saccadic visual sensitivity in an amplitude-dependent range of low spatial frequencies. This effect is highly robust, so that even minute changes in saccade size considerably affect visibility. We show that this phenomenon arises from the way the magnitude-dependent kinematic characteristics of saccades transform the visual world into a spatiotemporal flow: post-saccadic visibility closely follows theoretical predictions based on the spatial information that saccade transients convey within the temporal bandwidth of retinal sensitivity. Thus, saccades not only guide selection based on location, but also filter visual information based on content, actively shaping perception.

Both the focus of sustained attention and an individual's readiness to shift attention among spatial locations fluctuate over time. However, the interaction of these ongoing changes in attentional states remains unknown. In the current study, participants completed a modified gradual continuous performance task during which they monitored one of two lateralized streams of black and white images for the appearance of frequent target stimuli, withholding responses to foils. Periodically, a visual cue signaled participants to either maintain fixation at the current stream or to make a saccade to the opposing stream, and participants made a parity categorization for a digit appearing at the cued location. Trial-by-trial variation in pupil size, an indicator of arousal, accounted for both fluctuations in sustained attention and shift readiness but fluctuations in sustained attention were not associated with general modulations of shift readiness. Furthermore, we manipulated the frequency of gaze shift cues over time and observed that unexpected shift cues were most disruptive when participants lacked sustained focus, yielding a greater cost in saccade latencies than when the efficacy of sustained attention was high. Our results suggest that ongoing changes in sustained attention occur independently from gaze shifting readiness but carry consequences for learned saccade preparation.

We tested Parkinson’s disease (PD)-related impairments in the relationship between gaze shifts, body sway and mental workload while performing visual tasks in the standing position. Nineteen on-drug PD patients (Hoehn and Yahr I-II; MDS-UPDRS score part III: 23.37 ± 2.79) and twenty age-matched controls explored large images (visual angle: 100°) and performed a search task (location of targets within images) as well as a free-viewing (control) task. To collect kinematic data, all participants wore body markers (lower back, upper back and head) and an eye tracker. PD patients showed a higher amplitude in gaze shifts and body sway than age-matched controls. The adaptation of gaze shift and body sway velocity from free-viewing to searching was smaller in PD patients. The mental workload (NASA-TLX score) was a significant covariate in all participants. Furthermore, the MDS-UPDRS score was a significant covariate in the shared variance between body (lower back, upper back and head) and eye movement, thus showing a relation between this clinical variable and impairment at the behavioral level. Our results indicate impaired behavioral synergic, i.e. complementary, control between vision, posture and mental workload in PD patients. With a view to restoring synergic functional control, rehabilitation programs should train the three systems together simultaneously.

Shooting sports demand exceptional visual performance, yet detailed assessments of visual function in precision shooters remain limited. This cross-sectional study evaluated 28 pistol and rifle shooters and 20 age- and refractive-error-matched non-athletic controls. Participants underwent comprehensive visual assessments, including tests of visual acuity (VA), Vernier acuity, contrast sensitivity, binocular vision, accommodation, ocular biometry, perimetry, and eye movement tracking. A subgroup of national-level athletes was also analyzed. Compared to controls, shooters demonstrated superior near VA (-0.08 ± 0.06 vs. 0.03 ± 0.07 logMAR; p = 0.003), binocular Vernier acuity (5.4 ± 3.2 vs. 8.7 ± 5.1 arcsec; p = 0.032), and dominant eye contrast sensitivity (p = 0.005). National-level shooters showed fewer gaze shifts (p = 0.044), more stable fixation, and better stereoacuity (25 vs. 35 arcsec; p = 0.005). Modality-specific differences were observed: pistol shooters exhibited better distance acuity and central field sensitivity, while rifle shooters-despite being older-performed better in near VA. However, covering one eye to avoid diplopia, which is inherent in precision shooting, may cause suppression of the covered eye when performed frequently and for prolonged periods. This ultimately may explain why shooting experience correlates with reduced binocular balance and a worse near point of convergence (r = 0.335, p = 0.020). These findings suggest that visual expertise in precision shooting is linked to task-specific visual adaptations. Tailored visual training programs may enhance performance and mitigate training-induced imbalances.

We review the current state of our knowledge of the neural control of vergence and ocular accommodation in primates including humans. We first describe the critical need for these behaviors for viewing in a three-dimensional world. We then consider the sensory stimuli that drive vergence eye movements and lens accommodation and describe models of the sensorimotor transformations required to drive these motor systems. We discuss the interaction of vergence with saccades to produce high-speed shifts in gaze between objects at different distances and eccentricities. We also cover the normal development of these eye movements as well as the sequelae associated with their maldevelopment. In particular, we examine the neural substrates that produce vergence and lens accommodation, including motoneurons, immediate premotor circuitry, cerebellar and precerebellar regions, and cerebral cortical areas.

In artificial intelligence (AI), effective adaptation of educational imagery across diverse screen formats is essential, particularly in preschool education, where visual content must simultaneously engage and instruct young learners. This study introduces a novel scene retargeting model tailored to preserve pedagogically significant visual elements during image resizing. The proposed framework leverages the binarized normed gradients (BING) objectness metric to efficiently identify and prioritize key regions within educational images, such as objects and facial features. A core component of our approach is integrating a locality-preserved and interactive active optimization (LIAO) mechanism, which simulates human visual attention by generating gaze shift paths (GSPs) that guide feature prioritization. These GSPs are further transformed into hierarchical deep features using a multi-layer representation, followed by refinement through a Gaussian mixture model (GMM) to enhance scene understanding and retargeting fidelity. Experimental evaluations demonstrate that the proposed model not only surpasses five state-of-the-art methods in performance but also achieves a 3% improvement in accuracy compared to the next-best approach, all while reducing inference time by over 50%. The results confirm the model’s effectiveness and efficiency, offering a robust solution for educational content adaptation that aligns with cognitive and pedagogical requirements in early childhood learning environments.

The present study aims to improve understanding of how learners pay attention to the simultaneous presentation of text and multiple pictures in multimedia learning, focusing on the relationship between learners' reading strategies and learning performance. Specifically, we focused on multiple thematic maps because they should be compared to each other to understand the causal relationships. Thirty-six university students read fictitious geographic learning materials consisting of text and five thematic maps, and completed retention and comprehension tests. Learners' eye movements were recorded and their relationships with learning outcomes were examined. First, we found that fixation duration on maps was positively correlated with comprehension test scores. Second, the longer fixation duration of high-performance learners begin at an early stage of learning. Third, the gaze shift frequency between maps was positively correlated with comprehension test scores. This study demonstrates that the reading strategy of paying attention to maps and comparing them frequently is associated with higher geographic comprehension.

Effective voice agent (VA) counseling necessitates the interpretation of verbal cues alongside non-verbal behaviors, with a specific focus on user gaze. We aim to understand users’ gaze behavior in VA counseling and investigate its impact on response strategies. We developed GC-Speaker to detect user gaze direction during counseling, collecting 339 utterances and 678 gaze instances from 23 participants. For analysis, we categorized user gaze behaviors into three conditions: Non-Gaze, Once-Gaze, and Full-Gaze. The analysis showed Once-Gaze utterances were longer and had higher word counts than Non-Gaze and Full-Gaze utterances. Additionally, a gaze shift was observed, with Once-Gaze notably transitioning between conditions, while Non-Gaze and Full-Gaze remained stable. Interviews further revealed that users prefer to use gaze behavior in serious conversations, such as when expecting specific answers, navigating long utterances. These findings suggest that incorporating user gaze analysis into counseling dialogues can lead to more adaptive and effective responses in VA counseling.

The interpretation attributed to observed gaze shifts affects their attention cueing effect

This study examined the perceptual dynamics that influence the evaluation of eye contact as a communicative display. Participants (n = 137) completed a task where they decided if agents were inspecting or requesting one of three objects. Each agent shifted its gaze three times per trial, with the presence, frequency and sequence of eye contact displays manipulated across six conditions. We found significant differences between all gaze conditions. Participants were most likely, and fastest, to perceive a request when eye contact occurred between two averted gaze shifts towards the same object. Findings suggest that the relative temporal context of eye contact and averted gaze, rather than eye contact frequency or recency, shapes its communicative potency. Commensurate effects were observed when participants completed the task with agents that appeared as humans or a humanoid robot, indicating that gaze evaluations are broadly tuned across a range of social stimuli. Our findings advance the field of gaze perception research beyond paradigms that examine singular, salient and static gaze cues and inform how signals of communicative intent can be optimally engineered in the gaze behaviours of artificial agents (e.g. robots) to promote natural and intuitive social interactions.

Abstract Virtual reality (VR) is very promising for educational purposes but also presents learners with difficulties regarding orientation. Accordingly, VR environments should be designed to facilitate orientation, for example, by cueing. In a pre-registered laboratory experiment (between-subject design, 91 participants), we investigated the effects of a pedagogical agent cue compared to a light cue and a control condition without cues on search time, learning, mental representation, and perceived presence in a VR learning environment. Participants were tasked with locating tools in a virtual workshop environment, accompanied by a narration providing information about each tool. In the condition with the pedagogical agent cue, the agent was positioned close to the search objects and performed occasional gaze shifts to the object, whereas objects in the light cue condition were illuminated by a slightly reddish light. Both cueing methods significantly decreased search time but did neither affect learning outcomes nor the acquisition of the mental spatial representation of the learning environment. Additionally, the pedagogical agent cue reduced physical presence compared to the control condition and self-presence compared to both other conditions. In summary, these results imply that even with successful attention guidance, both types of cueing did not facilitate learning outcomes. It is an open question whether these effects generalize to larger VR environments and if different design choices regarding the pedagogical agent might influence presence positively, which might, in turn, lead to better learning outcomes.